11. The Virtue of Charity
Faith in God entails the obligation to correspond to divine love. The first commandment orders us to love God above all things and to love creatures for the love of God.1
CHARITY IN GENERAL
10. The Bond of Perfection
Charity is the first and most important of all commandments, the summary of them all. The whole Law and the prophets depend on charity (cf. Mt 22:38; 1 Cor 13:1–13; Mt 22:40). Charity is the bond of perfection (cf. 1 Cor 3:14; Rom 3:10).2
Charity is a certain friendship with God. It can be defined as a supernatural virtue infused by God, by which we love God for his own sake as the Supreme Good, and ourselves and our neighbor for God’s sake.
The primary object of charity is God in himself. Its secondary object are creatures insofar as they are related to God and are loved by him (cf. Mt 22:37–40). Thus, we also love ourselves with the love of charity, since we must want for ourselves what God wants, that is, our well-being.
The reason that moves us to love of God and his creatures is the very goodness of God, who is worthy of being loved in and for himself.
Charity is a “love of benevolence” in the sense that we love God for his own sake and not for the benefits that his love may bring us. It is also a “love of friendship” because, besides being disinterested, it is mutual and there is a communication of goods between both parties.
The more charity a person has, the holier he is. Furthermore, charity and faith are closely related. Faith is the act by which charity is accepted; thus, charity transforms faith itself. To believe in God out of love for him is living faith, and if one’s entire life is integrated with faith, then one loves God with one’s whole mind, heart, soul, and strength. That complete integration is sanctity.3
The definition of charity shows to what extent the love of God and the love of his creatures are related. They are inseparable in such a way that one cannot exist without the other. Moreover, both are acts of the same virtue, not of two similar virtues, but the love of creatures is subordinated to the love of God (cf. 1 Jn 4:12:21).
We will study separately the acts of charity toward God, ourselves, and our neighbor. Charity toward God belongs to the first commandment of the Law; the last two are to be considered in the context of the fifth commandment. All Christians are called to the fullness of Christian life, that is, sanctity. And this means exercising these acts in their highest perfection—sanctity is precisely the perfection of charity.4
CHARITY TOWARD GOD
(Related to the First Three Commandments)
11. Acts of Charity toward God
The properties of the act of charity toward God are the following:
· It is supernatural, as follows from the above.
· It is effective, since it is manifested in external deeds (cf. Jn 3:18ff; Jn 14:21).
· It is a love above all things. We must love God in such a way that we are willing to lose anything rather than his friendship, but this does not mean that we must feel his love more than any other (cf. Mt 10:37; 22:37).
Since charity is true friendship with God, it is incompatible with mortal sin, which is a separation from God and hence enmity with him. Thus, the act of charity—the resolution not to lose the friendship of God for any creature—destroys mortal sin and justifies (“makes just”) the sinner. After Christ instituted Baptism and Penance for the sinner’s justification, however, the act of charity—made with God’s help—must be united to the resolution in order to receive Baptism or Penance.
Charity is said to be the form of all virtues (cf. 1 Cor 13:4ff), meaning that all virtues must tend toward the proper object of charity: union with God. It also means that charity commands and marshals the other virtues. The acts of the other virtues are meritorious because of charity’s influence. That is why virtues are said to be formless when they are separated from charity.
12. The Necessity of Charity toward God
The virtue of charity (habitual charity) is necessary as a means of salvation for all people (cf. 1 Jn 4:16).
The act of charity (actual charity) is necessary as a means for adults with the use of reason in the following occasions:
· At the beginning of moral life
· Some times during one’s life
· When, being in mortal sin, it is not possible for someone to receive the Sacraments of Baptism or Penance
· When death is imminent
This refers to the necessity of the act of charity in itself. Acts of charity are also accidentally necessary (per accidens) when required by another necessary action, such as:
· when one has to reject a temptation,
· when one has to recover sanctifying grace (for example, in order to receive a sacrament of the living) and there is no confessor available. The act of perfect contrition that is required in this case includes an act of charity.
13. Sins Against Charity toward God
The sins of omission against charity toward God are easily deduced from the previous section: omitting any of the necessary acts of charity.5 Among them, indifference, ingratitude, and lukewarmness can be included.
There are two sins of commission:
· Hatred for God is always a mortal sin (ex toto genere suo), whether he is hated because he can punish or because he commands something unpleasant, or—even worse—he is hated in himself.
· Sloth, or acedia, is a disgust for the spiritual goods because they are difficult to obtain and exercise, which leads to spiritual stagnation. It is opposed to charity, which delights in them.
CHARITY TOWARD OURSELVES
(Related to the Fifth Commandment)
14. To Love Oneself
Charity leads us to love ourselves insofar as we are creatures and children of God, destined for eternal salvation. The commandment of loving ourselves is implicitly contained in that of loving our neighbor as ourselves (cf. Mt 22:39).
We must love ourselves, body and soul, because we belong to God. The true and perfect love for oneself consists in following Christ, perfect man, who invited us to imitate him.
The moral evil of the damages man can inflict upon himself will be studied in the chapter that is devoted to justice, by analogy with those caused to other persons.
CHARITY TOWARD OUR NEIGHBOR
(Related to the Fifth Commandment)
15. The New Commandment
Jesus summed up the Decalogue in two commandments, the second of which is “You shall love your neighbor as yourself” (Mt 22:39; cf. Lv 19:18; Tb 4:16). It can be properly called the New Commandment, since Jesus set a new and much higher standard: “This is my commandment, that you love one another as I have loved you” (Jn 15:12).
16. Properties of Fraternal Charity
Fraternal charity, or charity toward our neighbor, should have the following properties:
· Charity must be affective—carried out with internal acts of love—and effective—manifested in external works of charity.
· It must be universal, extending to all creatures that are capable of eternal happiness. It excludes only the devils and the damned.
· Charity has to be orderly, both as regards the persons loved and the goods wanted for them.
The last two properties will be studied more in detail.
16a) The Universality of Charity
The commandment of love extends to enemies as well: those who have offended us and have not done any reparation yet, those who hate us, and those whom we simply dislike through no fault of theirs or ours (cf. Prv 25:21ff; Mt 5:43ff; 1 Jn 3:14ff).
We must love our enemies not simply because they are our enemies, but because they are human beings and children of God. They must be loved in spite of being enemies, we could say. This has several specific consequences:
· One has to put aside all ill will (hatred, or desiring evil for the enemy) and thirst of revenge. One cannot curse an enemy.
· The enemy has to be shown all common signs of good will. There is no need to show extraordinary appreciation, as we do with friends.
· One has to seek reconciliation. The offender is bound to take the initiative in this regard, but since it often happens that parties blame each other, it is advisable that both take the first step toward reconciliation.
16b) Order as regards Persons
Charity should be orderly as regards the persons loved. Provided that the necessity and the quality of the goods are the same, the order of preference is as follows:
· Love of self comes before love of others, since this is the standard to imitate: “You shall love your neighbor as yourself” (Mt 22:39). It would not be reasonable to risk one’s own eternal salvation in order to save another. For example, one should not attempt to convert a heretic if there is danger losing one’s own faith instead.
· Other persons must be loved according to their closeness to God and ourselves. As regards the latter, the usual order of precedence is: spouse, children, parents, brothers and sisters, other close relatives, friends, benefactors.
16c) Order as regards the Goods
There is also an order in the benefits that we must wish for our neighbor: first, supernatural spiritual goods, such as grace and salvation; second, corporal goods, such as life, health, bodily integrity; and third, external goods, such as good reputation, honor, and wealth. Some principles can be established:
· A person in extreme spiritual need must be helped even at the risk of one’s life, provided that there is reasonable hope of succeeding and it does not conflict with the common good (cf. 1 Jn 3:16).
· If the spiritual need is not extreme, there is no obligation to risk one’s life or even some great personal damage in order to help, unless it is required by the common good or by the special obligations of one’s position.
· When a neighbor is in serious spiritual or corporal need, one is bound to help only if it can be done without great inconvenience (cum mediocri incommodo), unless justice, mercy, or one’s position demand a greater effort.
· A person in ordinary or slight need must be helped if it causes only a small inconvenience (cum levi incommodo).
17. External Acts of Fraternal Charity
17a) Works of Mercy
Mercy is the moral virtue that inclines the will to feel due compassion for our neighbor’s distress and to alleviate it.
The traditional, non-exhaustive listing includes seven spiritual and seven corporal works of mercy (cf. Mt 25:31–46).6 The spiritual works of mercy are:
· to admonish the sinner,
· to instruct the ignorant,
· to counsel the doubtful,
· to comfort the sorrowful,
· to bear wrongs patiently,
· to forgive all injuries, and
· to pray for the living and the dead.
The corporal works of mercy are:
· to feed the hungry,
· to give drink to the thirsty,
· to clothe the naked,
· to visit the imprisoned,
· to shelter the homeless,
· to care for the sick, and
· to bury the dead.
The works of mercy have not lost their relevance. They cannot be considered as a cheap substitutive or a lesser and imperfect form of justice.7 As we shall see later, justice requires giving to each one what is his due, what he is strictly entitled to. Mercy stems from charity and goes further, leading us to love others with the love of God. There is often a strict obligation to perform a work of mercy, but it stems from God’s commandment, not from the right of the beneficiary.
All the works of mercy are necessary, but the spiritual works are more important than the corporal ones; the gift is more important, since it is spiritual; the act of giving is more noble, since it is also spiritual; and the recipient—the spirit—is also more noble.8 Thus, apostolate is the best work of mercy, since it tries to communicate the highest possible good: being close to God.9
Many of these works of mercy can be reduced to two: fraternal correction and almsgiving, which we will study separately.
17b) Fraternal Correction
Fraternal correction is an admonition made out of charity, by which one attempts to free another person from sin or from danger of sin (cf. Mt 18:15–17).10
Generally speaking, fraternal correction is a requirement of natural law and of divine positive law. It is a serious obligation. In practice, however, the obligation to make fraternal correction is serious only in the following cases:
· One knows that another person is in a serious spiritual need that can be solved through a fraternal correction.
· It does not cause great inconvenience (sine magno incommodo).
However, if the subject is known to be receptive and take fraternal correction well, or if there is a mutual agreement to make fraternal correction, both the advisability and the obligation would extend to many other cases.
17c) Almsgiving
Almsgiving is an act of the virtue of mercy that is demanded by the virtue of charity.11 Its object is relieving our neighbor’s material needs through a donation (cf. Dt 15:11; Sir 4:1; Tb 4:7; Is 58:7).
Generally speaking, both natural and divine positive law require us to give alms to the poor. In practical cases, the obligation to give alms depends on the capacity of the donor and the need of the beneficiary. The following rules can serve as an orientation:
· The mere obligation of charity does not bind anyone to give to others what is necessary for one’s own life.
· We are bound to help those in extreme need with our superfluous goods and also with those that are only relatively necessary (cf. 1 Jn 3:17). The latter include, for example, those goods that are needed to keep one’s station in life. They are exempted, however, if giving them out would cause serious inconvenience (cum magno incommodo).
· We are obliged to help those who are in serious need with our superfluous goods.
· In case of slight need, occasional almsgiving out of our superfluous goods is a serious obligation (cf. Ps 40:2–4), but we are not bound to give to any specific person.
Sometimes, we hear about spiritual almsgiving referred to giving advice, instruction, or fraternal correction.
18. Sins against Fraternal Charity
Some of the sins against charity toward our neighbor are:
· Hatred, enmity, or ill will, which are desiring evil for our neighbor,
· Envy,12 or bitter resentment for another’s good fortune, which is seen as bad for us because it lessens our own excellence or glory,
· Discord (“separation of hearts”) or dissent of wills, which is not to be confused with disagreement or dissent of opinions,
· Quarrels or unruly verbal disputes,
· Fights or physical altercations among persons, which are licit only in case of self-defense.
The moral evil of all these sins is plain and evident. But there are two other sins that can pose more difficult moral problems: scandal and cooperation in evil. Actually, these are not two different sins, but two different degrees of the same sin. We will study them separately.
18a) Scandal
The term scandal originally meant “stumbling-block,” something that can make one trip and fall. It can be defined as any evil saying, deed, or omission that constitutes an occasion for others to fall into sin (cf. Mt 18:6ff).13
There are different types of scandal. Direct scandal includes the intention to make others sin. Formal or diabolic scandal is a direct scandal that is aimed at corrupting and harming, rather than at the benefit that one may get from another’s sin. Indirect scandal is that in which the other person’s sin is foreseen but not directly intended.
If the scandal is suffered because of the victim’s ignorance, without any objective reason, we have the scandal of the weak or scandalum pusillorum (“scandal of little ones”). Such is the case of someone who is scandalized because a “mature” person likes modern music.
If the scandal is due to the victim’s own evil intention, without any objective reason, we have a pharisaic scandal. This was the case of the Pharisees, who thought Jesus sinned by curing on the Sabbath (cf. Mt 15:12–14).
Direct scandal is a mortal sin ex genere suo, and thus admits slight matter. It is a double sin against charity and the specific virtue that is violated by the other person’s sin. The seriousness of the scandal is proportional to its intentionality, its influence over the other person’s sin, and the seriousness of that sin.
Indirect scandal is a sin against charity, but not against the virtue that is violated by the other person’s sin.
The scandal of the weak must be avoided whenever possible without great inconvenience (sine gravi incommodo) (cf. Rom 14:13–23). There is no obligation of avoiding a pharisaic scandal if there is a reasonable cause for the action.
A mere occasion of sin is not a scandal. But one must consider whether an action that involves a potential occasion of sin for others is lawful or not. The situation must be studied in the light of the norms for indirectly voluntary actions.
A scandal demands reparation since it violates fraternal charity and, at times, even justice and the common good. Public scandal must be repaired in public. The reparation of private scandal need extend only to the victims.
18b) Cooperation in Evil
(1) Definition and types
Cooperation in evil usually means—among other meanings that we will not study here—any assistance or collaboration in another person’s evil deed. This covers a wide range of actions, from the different types of complicity and incitation to material cooperation. The latter would be the case, for example, of those who sell the instrument used to commit a sin.
We can further narrow this concept by distinguishing it from scandal, or inciting another to commit a sin. In cooperation in evil, there is no direct influence over the evil intention of the other; one’s cooperation just makes the other’s action possible or easier. Thus, any kind of cooperation influencing another’s decision to sin is morally equivalent to scandal—an extremely serious sin severely condemned by our Lord (cf. Mt 18:6–9). This would be the case of those who teach others how to do evil deeds, sin so that others may imitate them, or advise others to sin.
In order to judge the morality of cooperation in evil in specific cases, we must distinguish the different types of cooperation. The main distinction is between formal and material cooperation. In formal cooperation, one wants or consents to the other’s sin, with or without external manifestation. In material cooperation, the other’s evil act is neither wanted nor consented to. There is collaboration as to the performance of the physical action, but the will neither wants to offend God nor wants the other to offend him.
Depending on how close the collaboration in the evil deed is, we can speak of mediate or immediate cooperation. Immediate or direct cooperation assists in the performance of the sinful act itself, as the anesthetist in an unlawful surgical operation. Mediate or indirect cooperation involves only supplying the instrument to be used in another’s sin. It does not have any direct connection with the sin. For example, selling a drug or a weapon that the buyer will later use for a crime.
We can still make another distinction between proximate and remote cooperation, based on the degree of physical or moral closeness between the help that is given and the sin itself. This division is related to the preceding one, since direct cooperation is always proximate; indirect cooperation, however, may be proximate or remote. If a bank finances an abortion campaign, for example, its directors cooperate in a proximate and mediate way. The depositors and stockholders, on the other hand, cooperate in a remote and mediate way by making it possible with their money.
(2) Morality of cooperation in evil
The following criteria allow us to judge the morality of cooperation in evil in specific cases.
Formal cooperation is always illicit. It implies wanting or consenting to another’s sin, which is in itself a sin. St. Paul decries it after listing the sins of those who reject God: “Those who do such things deserve to die, they not only do them but they approve those who practice them” (Rom 1:32).
Generally speaking, mere material cooperation is also illicit. Charity binds us to prevent inasmuch as possible our neighbor’s sins—cooperation is, of course, out of the question.
In some particular circumstances, material cooperation may be lawful in order to obtain a necessary good or avoid a great damage. Charity does not bind us to avoid another person’s sin when this would cause us a great inconvenience or require a disproportionate effort. Obviously, cooperation is not lawful if there are other ways to obtain the good or avoid the damage.
Nevertheless, the above condition is not sufficient to make material cooperation lawful. The rules that govern the morality of double effect (or indirectly voluntary) acts also must be followed. These rules can be summarized as follows:
· The action of the collaborator must be in itself good or indifferent.
· The intention of the collaborator must be good: All formal cooperation and illicit intention must be excluded.
· There must be a proportionate cause to justify the cooperation. This is the most delicate factor to evaluate, at times posing great difficulties. The good to be obtained—or evil to be avoided—must be carefully balanced against the evil that is caused by one’s cooperation.
· The good effect that is sought should not be a consequence of the evil action with which one cooperates.
Rectitude of intention is needed in applying these principles to a possible cooperation in evil. As regards the intention of the collaborator, the fact that, if one does not help, someone else will does not make cooperation lawful. Neither is the moral certitude that the sin will be committed just the same without our help enough to make it lawful.
In assessing the proportionate or reasonable cause mentioned, one must consider the seriousness of the sin involved, the certainty that it will actually be committed, the closeness of the cooperation that is sought, and the consequences for third parties. Great rectitude is required to decide whether the cause is proportionate to the evil results of one’s cooperation.
Even when all the above conditions have been met, there are still two other requirements:
i) Scandal must be avoided. Others—especially persons with poor formation—may think that one is consenting to the sin committed.
ii) Proximate occasions of sin must be avoided. Cooperating in another’s sins through good or indifferent actions often entails the danger of eventually consenting to those sins. Therefore, one must apply the proper means to remove the occasion of sin.
Cases that raise the possibility of cooperation in evil pose complex moral problems. These must be studied in the presence of God. One must be humble enough to ask for advice. In addition, a good Christian should have a positive spiritual outlook: cooperation in good, seeking and spreading the good, helping others to find Christ.
Footnotes:
1. Cf. CCC, 1822–1832; 2093–2094.
2. Cf. LG, 42.
3. Cf. G. Grisez and R. Shaw, Fulfillment in Christ, 330.
4. Cf. LG, 41; St. Josemaría Escrivá, The Way, 291.
5. Cf. CCC, 2094.
6. Cf. Ibid., 2447–2449.
7. Cf. AA, 8.
8. Cf. ST, II-II, q. 32, a. 3.
9. Cf. GS, 28.
10. Cf. CCC, 1435, 1829.
11. Cf. Ibid., 2447, 2462.
12. Cf. Ibid., 2538.
13. Cf. Ibid., 2284–2287.
CHARITY IN GENERAL
10. The Bond of Perfection
Charity is the first and most important of all commandments, the summary of them all. The whole Law and the prophets depend on charity (cf. Mt 22:38; 1 Cor 13:1–13; Mt 22:40). Charity is the bond of perfection (cf. 1 Cor 3:14; Rom 3:10).2
Charity is a certain friendship with God. It can be defined as a supernatural virtue infused by God, by which we love God for his own sake as the Supreme Good, and ourselves and our neighbor for God’s sake.
The primary object of charity is God in himself. Its secondary object are creatures insofar as they are related to God and are loved by him (cf. Mt 22:37–40). Thus, we also love ourselves with the love of charity, since we must want for ourselves what God wants, that is, our well-being.
The reason that moves us to love of God and his creatures is the very goodness of God, who is worthy of being loved in and for himself.
Charity is a “love of benevolence” in the sense that we love God for his own sake and not for the benefits that his love may bring us. It is also a “love of friendship” because, besides being disinterested, it is mutual and there is a communication of goods between both parties.
The more charity a person has, the holier he is. Furthermore, charity and faith are closely related. Faith is the act by which charity is accepted; thus, charity transforms faith itself. To believe in God out of love for him is living faith, and if one’s entire life is integrated with faith, then one loves God with one’s whole mind, heart, soul, and strength. That complete integration is sanctity.3
The definition of charity shows to what extent the love of God and the love of his creatures are related. They are inseparable in such a way that one cannot exist without the other. Moreover, both are acts of the same virtue, not of two similar virtues, but the love of creatures is subordinated to the love of God (cf. 1 Jn 4:12:21).
We will study separately the acts of charity toward God, ourselves, and our neighbor. Charity toward God belongs to the first commandment of the Law; the last two are to be considered in the context of the fifth commandment. All Christians are called to the fullness of Christian life, that is, sanctity. And this means exercising these acts in their highest perfection—sanctity is precisely the perfection of charity.4
CHARITY TOWARD GOD
(Related to the First Three Commandments)
11. Acts of Charity toward God
The properties of the act of charity toward God are the following:
· It is supernatural, as follows from the above.
· It is effective, since it is manifested in external deeds (cf. Jn 3:18ff; Jn 14:21).
· It is a love above all things. We must love God in such a way that we are willing to lose anything rather than his friendship, but this does not mean that we must feel his love more than any other (cf. Mt 10:37; 22:37).
Since charity is true friendship with God, it is incompatible with mortal sin, which is a separation from God and hence enmity with him. Thus, the act of charity—the resolution not to lose the friendship of God for any creature—destroys mortal sin and justifies (“makes just”) the sinner. After Christ instituted Baptism and Penance for the sinner’s justification, however, the act of charity—made with God’s help—must be united to the resolution in order to receive Baptism or Penance.
Charity is said to be the form of all virtues (cf. 1 Cor 13:4ff), meaning that all virtues must tend toward the proper object of charity: union with God. It also means that charity commands and marshals the other virtues. The acts of the other virtues are meritorious because of charity’s influence. That is why virtues are said to be formless when they are separated from charity.
12. The Necessity of Charity toward God
The virtue of charity (habitual charity) is necessary as a means of salvation for all people (cf. 1 Jn 4:16).
The act of charity (actual charity) is necessary as a means for adults with the use of reason in the following occasions:
· At the beginning of moral life
· Some times during one’s life
· When, being in mortal sin, it is not possible for someone to receive the Sacraments of Baptism or Penance
· When death is imminent
This refers to the necessity of the act of charity in itself. Acts of charity are also accidentally necessary (per accidens) when required by another necessary action, such as:
· when one has to reject a temptation,
· when one has to recover sanctifying grace (for example, in order to receive a sacrament of the living) and there is no confessor available. The act of perfect contrition that is required in this case includes an act of charity.
13. Sins Against Charity toward God
The sins of omission against charity toward God are easily deduced from the previous section: omitting any of the necessary acts of charity.5 Among them, indifference, ingratitude, and lukewarmness can be included.
There are two sins of commission:
· Hatred for God is always a mortal sin (ex toto genere suo), whether he is hated because he can punish or because he commands something unpleasant, or—even worse—he is hated in himself.
· Sloth, or acedia, is a disgust for the spiritual goods because they are difficult to obtain and exercise, which leads to spiritual stagnation. It is opposed to charity, which delights in them.
CHARITY TOWARD OURSELVES
(Related to the Fifth Commandment)
14. To Love Oneself
Charity leads us to love ourselves insofar as we are creatures and children of God, destined for eternal salvation. The commandment of loving ourselves is implicitly contained in that of loving our neighbor as ourselves (cf. Mt 22:39).
We must love ourselves, body and soul, because we belong to God. The true and perfect love for oneself consists in following Christ, perfect man, who invited us to imitate him.
The moral evil of the damages man can inflict upon himself will be studied in the chapter that is devoted to justice, by analogy with those caused to other persons.
CHARITY TOWARD OUR NEIGHBOR
(Related to the Fifth Commandment)
15. The New Commandment
Jesus summed up the Decalogue in two commandments, the second of which is “You shall love your neighbor as yourself” (Mt 22:39; cf. Lv 19:18; Tb 4:16). It can be properly called the New Commandment, since Jesus set a new and much higher standard: “This is my commandment, that you love one another as I have loved you” (Jn 15:12).
16. Properties of Fraternal Charity
Fraternal charity, or charity toward our neighbor, should have the following properties:
· Charity must be affective—carried out with internal acts of love—and effective—manifested in external works of charity.
· It must be universal, extending to all creatures that are capable of eternal happiness. It excludes only the devils and the damned.
· Charity has to be orderly, both as regards the persons loved and the goods wanted for them.
The last two properties will be studied more in detail.
16a) The Universality of Charity
The commandment of love extends to enemies as well: those who have offended us and have not done any reparation yet, those who hate us, and those whom we simply dislike through no fault of theirs or ours (cf. Prv 25:21ff; Mt 5:43ff; 1 Jn 3:14ff).
We must love our enemies not simply because they are our enemies, but because they are human beings and children of God. They must be loved in spite of being enemies, we could say. This has several specific consequences:
· One has to put aside all ill will (hatred, or desiring evil for the enemy) and thirst of revenge. One cannot curse an enemy.
· The enemy has to be shown all common signs of good will. There is no need to show extraordinary appreciation, as we do with friends.
· One has to seek reconciliation. The offender is bound to take the initiative in this regard, but since it often happens that parties blame each other, it is advisable that both take the first step toward reconciliation.
16b) Order as regards Persons
Charity should be orderly as regards the persons loved. Provided that the necessity and the quality of the goods are the same, the order of preference is as follows:
· Love of self comes before love of others, since this is the standard to imitate: “You shall love your neighbor as yourself” (Mt 22:39). It would not be reasonable to risk one’s own eternal salvation in order to save another. For example, one should not attempt to convert a heretic if there is danger losing one’s own faith instead.
· Other persons must be loved according to their closeness to God and ourselves. As regards the latter, the usual order of precedence is: spouse, children, parents, brothers and sisters, other close relatives, friends, benefactors.
16c) Order as regards the Goods
There is also an order in the benefits that we must wish for our neighbor: first, supernatural spiritual goods, such as grace and salvation; second, corporal goods, such as life, health, bodily integrity; and third, external goods, such as good reputation, honor, and wealth. Some principles can be established:
· A person in extreme spiritual need must be helped even at the risk of one’s life, provided that there is reasonable hope of succeeding and it does not conflict with the common good (cf. 1 Jn 3:16).
· If the spiritual need is not extreme, there is no obligation to risk one’s life or even some great personal damage in order to help, unless it is required by the common good or by the special obligations of one’s position.
· When a neighbor is in serious spiritual or corporal need, one is bound to help only if it can be done without great inconvenience (cum mediocri incommodo), unless justice, mercy, or one’s position demand a greater effort.
· A person in ordinary or slight need must be helped if it causes only a small inconvenience (cum levi incommodo).
17. External Acts of Fraternal Charity
17a) Works of Mercy
Mercy is the moral virtue that inclines the will to feel due compassion for our neighbor’s distress and to alleviate it.
The traditional, non-exhaustive listing includes seven spiritual and seven corporal works of mercy (cf. Mt 25:31–46).6 The spiritual works of mercy are:
· to admonish the sinner,
· to instruct the ignorant,
· to counsel the doubtful,
· to comfort the sorrowful,
· to bear wrongs patiently,
· to forgive all injuries, and
· to pray for the living and the dead.
The corporal works of mercy are:
· to feed the hungry,
· to give drink to the thirsty,
· to clothe the naked,
· to visit the imprisoned,
· to shelter the homeless,
· to care for the sick, and
· to bury the dead.
The works of mercy have not lost their relevance. They cannot be considered as a cheap substitutive or a lesser and imperfect form of justice.7 As we shall see later, justice requires giving to each one what is his due, what he is strictly entitled to. Mercy stems from charity and goes further, leading us to love others with the love of God. There is often a strict obligation to perform a work of mercy, but it stems from God’s commandment, not from the right of the beneficiary.
All the works of mercy are necessary, but the spiritual works are more important than the corporal ones; the gift is more important, since it is spiritual; the act of giving is more noble, since it is also spiritual; and the recipient—the spirit—is also more noble.8 Thus, apostolate is the best work of mercy, since it tries to communicate the highest possible good: being close to God.9
Many of these works of mercy can be reduced to two: fraternal correction and almsgiving, which we will study separately.
17b) Fraternal Correction
Fraternal correction is an admonition made out of charity, by which one attempts to free another person from sin or from danger of sin (cf. Mt 18:15–17).10
Generally speaking, fraternal correction is a requirement of natural law and of divine positive law. It is a serious obligation. In practice, however, the obligation to make fraternal correction is serious only in the following cases:
· One knows that another person is in a serious spiritual need that can be solved through a fraternal correction.
· It does not cause great inconvenience (sine magno incommodo).
However, if the subject is known to be receptive and take fraternal correction well, or if there is a mutual agreement to make fraternal correction, both the advisability and the obligation would extend to many other cases.
17c) Almsgiving
Almsgiving is an act of the virtue of mercy that is demanded by the virtue of charity.11 Its object is relieving our neighbor’s material needs through a donation (cf. Dt 15:11; Sir 4:1; Tb 4:7; Is 58:7).
Generally speaking, both natural and divine positive law require us to give alms to the poor. In practical cases, the obligation to give alms depends on the capacity of the donor and the need of the beneficiary. The following rules can serve as an orientation:
· The mere obligation of charity does not bind anyone to give to others what is necessary for one’s own life.
· We are bound to help those in extreme need with our superfluous goods and also with those that are only relatively necessary (cf. 1 Jn 3:17). The latter include, for example, those goods that are needed to keep one’s station in life. They are exempted, however, if giving them out would cause serious inconvenience (cum magno incommodo).
· We are obliged to help those who are in serious need with our superfluous goods.
· In case of slight need, occasional almsgiving out of our superfluous goods is a serious obligation (cf. Ps 40:2–4), but we are not bound to give to any specific person.
Sometimes, we hear about spiritual almsgiving referred to giving advice, instruction, or fraternal correction.
18. Sins against Fraternal Charity
Some of the sins against charity toward our neighbor are:
· Hatred, enmity, or ill will, which are desiring evil for our neighbor,
· Envy,12 or bitter resentment for another’s good fortune, which is seen as bad for us because it lessens our own excellence or glory,
· Discord (“separation of hearts”) or dissent of wills, which is not to be confused with disagreement or dissent of opinions,
· Quarrels or unruly verbal disputes,
· Fights or physical altercations among persons, which are licit only in case of self-defense.
The moral evil of all these sins is plain and evident. But there are two other sins that can pose more difficult moral problems: scandal and cooperation in evil. Actually, these are not two different sins, but two different degrees of the same sin. We will study them separately.
18a) Scandal
The term scandal originally meant “stumbling-block,” something that can make one trip and fall. It can be defined as any evil saying, deed, or omission that constitutes an occasion for others to fall into sin (cf. Mt 18:6ff).13
There are different types of scandal. Direct scandal includes the intention to make others sin. Formal or diabolic scandal is a direct scandal that is aimed at corrupting and harming, rather than at the benefit that one may get from another’s sin. Indirect scandal is that in which the other person’s sin is foreseen but not directly intended.
If the scandal is suffered because of the victim’s ignorance, without any objective reason, we have the scandal of the weak or scandalum pusillorum (“scandal of little ones”). Such is the case of someone who is scandalized because a “mature” person likes modern music.
If the scandal is due to the victim’s own evil intention, without any objective reason, we have a pharisaic scandal. This was the case of the Pharisees, who thought Jesus sinned by curing on the Sabbath (cf. Mt 15:12–14).
Direct scandal is a mortal sin ex genere suo, and thus admits slight matter. It is a double sin against charity and the specific virtue that is violated by the other person’s sin. The seriousness of the scandal is proportional to its intentionality, its influence over the other person’s sin, and the seriousness of that sin.
Indirect scandal is a sin against charity, but not against the virtue that is violated by the other person’s sin.
The scandal of the weak must be avoided whenever possible without great inconvenience (sine gravi incommodo) (cf. Rom 14:13–23). There is no obligation of avoiding a pharisaic scandal if there is a reasonable cause for the action.
A mere occasion of sin is not a scandal. But one must consider whether an action that involves a potential occasion of sin for others is lawful or not. The situation must be studied in the light of the norms for indirectly voluntary actions.
A scandal demands reparation since it violates fraternal charity and, at times, even justice and the common good. Public scandal must be repaired in public. The reparation of private scandal need extend only to the victims.
18b) Cooperation in Evil
(1) Definition and types
Cooperation in evil usually means—among other meanings that we will not study here—any assistance or collaboration in another person’s evil deed. This covers a wide range of actions, from the different types of complicity and incitation to material cooperation. The latter would be the case, for example, of those who sell the instrument used to commit a sin.
We can further narrow this concept by distinguishing it from scandal, or inciting another to commit a sin. In cooperation in evil, there is no direct influence over the evil intention of the other; one’s cooperation just makes the other’s action possible or easier. Thus, any kind of cooperation influencing another’s decision to sin is morally equivalent to scandal—an extremely serious sin severely condemned by our Lord (cf. Mt 18:6–9). This would be the case of those who teach others how to do evil deeds, sin so that others may imitate them, or advise others to sin.
In order to judge the morality of cooperation in evil in specific cases, we must distinguish the different types of cooperation. The main distinction is between formal and material cooperation. In formal cooperation, one wants or consents to the other’s sin, with or without external manifestation. In material cooperation, the other’s evil act is neither wanted nor consented to. There is collaboration as to the performance of the physical action, but the will neither wants to offend God nor wants the other to offend him.
Depending on how close the collaboration in the evil deed is, we can speak of mediate or immediate cooperation. Immediate or direct cooperation assists in the performance of the sinful act itself, as the anesthetist in an unlawful surgical operation. Mediate or indirect cooperation involves only supplying the instrument to be used in another’s sin. It does not have any direct connection with the sin. For example, selling a drug or a weapon that the buyer will later use for a crime.
We can still make another distinction between proximate and remote cooperation, based on the degree of physical or moral closeness between the help that is given and the sin itself. This division is related to the preceding one, since direct cooperation is always proximate; indirect cooperation, however, may be proximate or remote. If a bank finances an abortion campaign, for example, its directors cooperate in a proximate and mediate way. The depositors and stockholders, on the other hand, cooperate in a remote and mediate way by making it possible with their money.
(2) Morality of cooperation in evil
The following criteria allow us to judge the morality of cooperation in evil in specific cases.
Formal cooperation is always illicit. It implies wanting or consenting to another’s sin, which is in itself a sin. St. Paul decries it after listing the sins of those who reject God: “Those who do such things deserve to die, they not only do them but they approve those who practice them” (Rom 1:32).
Generally speaking, mere material cooperation is also illicit. Charity binds us to prevent inasmuch as possible our neighbor’s sins—cooperation is, of course, out of the question.
In some particular circumstances, material cooperation may be lawful in order to obtain a necessary good or avoid a great damage. Charity does not bind us to avoid another person’s sin when this would cause us a great inconvenience or require a disproportionate effort. Obviously, cooperation is not lawful if there are other ways to obtain the good or avoid the damage.
Nevertheless, the above condition is not sufficient to make material cooperation lawful. The rules that govern the morality of double effect (or indirectly voluntary) acts also must be followed. These rules can be summarized as follows:
· The action of the collaborator must be in itself good or indifferent.
· The intention of the collaborator must be good: All formal cooperation and illicit intention must be excluded.
· There must be a proportionate cause to justify the cooperation. This is the most delicate factor to evaluate, at times posing great difficulties. The good to be obtained—or evil to be avoided—must be carefully balanced against the evil that is caused by one’s cooperation.
· The good effect that is sought should not be a consequence of the evil action with which one cooperates.
Rectitude of intention is needed in applying these principles to a possible cooperation in evil. As regards the intention of the collaborator, the fact that, if one does not help, someone else will does not make cooperation lawful. Neither is the moral certitude that the sin will be committed just the same without our help enough to make it lawful.
In assessing the proportionate or reasonable cause mentioned, one must consider the seriousness of the sin involved, the certainty that it will actually be committed, the closeness of the cooperation that is sought, and the consequences for third parties. Great rectitude is required to decide whether the cause is proportionate to the evil results of one’s cooperation.
Even when all the above conditions have been met, there are still two other requirements:
i) Scandal must be avoided. Others—especially persons with poor formation—may think that one is consenting to the sin committed.
ii) Proximate occasions of sin must be avoided. Cooperating in another’s sins through good or indifferent actions often entails the danger of eventually consenting to those sins. Therefore, one must apply the proper means to remove the occasion of sin.
Cases that raise the possibility of cooperation in evil pose complex moral problems. These must be studied in the presence of God. One must be humble enough to ask for advice. In addition, a good Christian should have a positive spiritual outlook: cooperation in good, seeking and spreading the good, helping others to find Christ.
Footnotes:
1. Cf. CCC, 1822–1832; 2093–2094.
2. Cf. LG, 42.
3. Cf. G. Grisez and R. Shaw, Fulfillment in Christ, 330.
4. Cf. LG, 41; St. Josemaría Escrivá, The Way, 291.
5. Cf. CCC, 2094.
6. Cf. Ibid., 2447–2449.
7. Cf. AA, 8.
8. Cf. ST, II-II, q. 32, a. 3.
9. Cf. GS, 28.
10. Cf. CCC, 1435, 1829.
11. Cf. Ibid., 2447, 2462.
12. Cf. Ibid., 2538.
13. Cf. Ibid., 2284–2287.