18. Fortitude and Temperance
FORTITUDE AND ITS RELATED VIRTUES
78. The Virtue of Fortitude
Fortitude is the cardinal virtue that strengthens the will so that it does not give up in its pursuit of a good that is seen as difficult by natural reason (human virtue) or by reason enlightened by faith (supernatural virtue).1
A further qualification is usually added to this definition: The will does not give up even in the face of the greatest danger for corporeal life. This stresses the force (hence fortitude) that this virtue lends to the will when it is complete or perfect.
This virtue controls the influence that feelings (passions) of fear and audacity have on the will. The acts of fortitude tend to suppress both excessive fear and recklessness.
Since Christian life is a continuous struggle to better fulfill the divine will, fortitude and its related virtues are extremely important. Their concrete manifestations are manifold: constancy in work, perseverance in the face of temptations and difficulties, measuring up to costly duties and difficult environments, speaking about God without human respects, correcting evildoers, and boldly undertaking risky or heavy tasks.
The ultimate though exceptional act of fortitude is martyrdom: the endurance of death in witness to the truth of Christianity.2
Strictly speaking, martyrdom requires three conditions: (1) actual death; (2) a death that is inflicted out of hatred for Christian truth; (3) voluntary acceptance of death.
Martyrdom completely justifies the sinner, whether baptized or not, adult or infant. Being the ultimate act of charity, all venial sins and all temporal punishments are remitted. Martyrs go straight to heaven. They also merit a great increase in glory.
79. The Potential Parts of Fortitude
There are four virtues that are related to fortitude: magnanimity, munificence, patience, and perseverance. These are usually called potential parts of fortitude, that is, virtues that are similar to fortitude, but not completely identical.
79a) Magnanimity
Magnanimity (from magnus animus, “great soul”) is the virtue that inclines man to undertake great deeds in every virtue.
According to Aristotle and St. Thomas, the magnanimous man does not delight excessively in receiving honors, no matter how great; neither is he greatly affected by prosperity or adversity. He is happy to help others. He is great among the great, that is, he does not flatter them and he does not allow them to curtail his freedom. With ordinary people, he is unassuming. He is not ambitious nor a social climber. Neither fearing others nor seeking their praise, he openly speaks what he has in his mind when necessary. He forgets offenses. He is not rash but takes his actions deliberately.3
79b) Munificence
Munificence (from munus facere, “to make presents”) is the moral virtue that inclines man to undertake great and costly works in spite of the effort or expenses that are required.4
79c) Patience
Patience (from pati, “to suffer”) is the moral virtue that inclines people to suffer present evils without excessive sorrow, especially those that are inflicted by others.5
Patience has several successive degrees: to suffer evils without backbiting, to suffer evils without groaning or complaining to others, to suffer evils with joy.
These degrees apply to both the human and the supernatural virtue. The apostles reacted with this highest degree of patience when they rejoiced over being scourged for the sake of Christ’s name (cf. Acts 5:40–42).
79d) Perseverance
Perseverance is the moral virtue that inclines man to continue in the exercise of virtue according to the dictates of right reason (or reason enlightened by faith) in spite of the wear and tear and the monotony of repetition.6
80. Vices Contrary to these Virtues
80a) Opposed to Fortitude
· Cowardice or timidity is an inordinate fear of temporal ills.
· Fearlessness or impassibility is a lack or disregard of fear when fear is reasonable.
· Recklessness or temerity consists in risking danger without a proportionate cause.
80b) Opposed to Magnanimity
· Presumption inclines to undertake works that exceed the capacity of the subject.
· Ambition is an inordinate longing for honors.
· Vainglory is an inordinate desire for personal glory.
· Pusillanimity (from pusillus animus, “small soul”) inclines man to shy away from works that he deems to exceed his strength, when in fact they do not.
80c) Opposed to Munificence
· Prodigality inclines to unnecessary and unreasonable great expenses.
· Stinginess leads to niggardly and unreasonably restricting necessary expenses.
80d) Opposed to Patience
· Insensibility, or lack of feeling, inclines man to be unmoved by any difficulty, as if he could not notice it.
· Impatience leads to yielding easily to obstacles, often reacting with complaints or anger.
80e) Opposed to Perseverance
· Pertinacity or stubbornness inclines man not to yield when it would be reasonable to do so.
· Inconstancy consists in easily giving up the practice of virtue as soon as difficulties arise.
TEMPERANCE AND ITS PARTS
81. The Virtue of Temperance
Temperance is the cardinal virtue that regulates the pursuit of pleasure according to right reason (human virtue) or reason enlightened by faith (supernatural virtue).7
Faith may move reason to decide quite differently than it would with merely natural considerations. Thus, in the pleasures of food, natural reason would consider only the demands of bodily health and its effect on the intellectual and volitive life of man. With the light of revelation, reason must also consider the supernatural good and the consequent need for mortification and penance, and may decide to fast. Generally speaking, we can say that supernatural temperance adds to the acts of its natural counterpart the need for mortification for supernatural reasons.
In a broad sense, temperance moderates the enjoyment of all pleasures, both corporeal and spiritual. It may, thus, lead to not paying excessive attention to feelings and consolations in mental prayer.
For practical reasons, however, temperance is usually understood in its stricter sense, as the virtue that moderates the pursuit of pleasure in food, drink, and sex.8 The very term temperance refers to the object of this restraint: avoiding unreasonable excesses in the pursuit of these pleasures.
82. Integral Parts of Temperance
The integral parts of temperance are habits that facilitate the exercise of temperance.
The first integral part of temperance is the sense of shame. It is not properly a virtue, since, at times, it does not incline to good; one may feel ashamed to perform certain good actions. It is a worthy feeling that makes people shy away from base and lewd things. This shame (or modesty) is a useful help in avoiding any debasing behavior, for example, in the field of chastity.9
The second integral part of temperance is honesty (or decorum), which, in the stricter and now uncommon sense, is love of propriety and of anything clean, beautiful, and well-done.10
83. Potential Parts of Temperance
As we saw with the other virtues, potential parts are those virtues that closely resemble but are not completely identical with the main virtue. Although not all authors agree on this, the potential parts of the virtue of temperance are the following:
· Continence is the virtue that inclines the will to resist passions, especially those concerned with touch.
· Meekness is the moral virtue that moves the will to resist the passion of anger.
· Clemency is the virtue that inclines to reducing or even remitting due punishment insofar as this is reasonable.
· Modesty regulates external physical movements and appearance, and moderation regulates the use of external things, so that both are in line with one’s state and situation in life.
· Humility is a part of temperance,11 but it has a special importance in moral life. In a certain way, humility is the foundation of all other virtues, just as its contrary vice—pride—is the root of all sins. On account of this, we will consider humility in more detail.
Humility is the virtue that inclines man to curb his inordinate desire for personal excellence, and recognize his own insignificance in the face of God and his right standing in relation to others.12
Humility leads one to be realistic about one’s situation and consider one’s own defects in order to avoid undue self-exaltation. It also leads one to acknowledge the gifts that are received from God and act accordingly.13
The preeminent example of humility was set by Jesus Christ, who “emptied himself, taking the form of a servant, being born in the likeness of men. And being found in human form he humbled himself and became obedient unto death, even death on a cross” (Phil 2:6–8).14
In order to avoid and vanquish pride, constant vigilance and positive acts of humility are absolutely necessary: “When pride takes hold of a soul, it is no surprise to find it bringing along with it a whole string of other vices: greed, self-indulgence, envy, injustice. The proud man is always vainly striving to dethrone God, who is merciful to all his creatures, so as to make room for himself and his ever cruel ways.”15
It should be noted that pride is not an exclusive vice of the great and the mighty. “We have to fight against other forms of pride that are more subtle, and more frequent: against the pride of preferring our own excellence to that of our neighbor; against vanity in our conversations, thoughts and gestures; against an almost sickly touchiness that takes offense at words and actions that are in no way meant to be insulting.”16
84. Subjective Parts of Temperance
Four subjective parts or aspects of temperance are distinguished, according to the objects that they govern:
i) Abstinence controls the use of food.
ii) Sobriety regulates the use of intoxicating drinks.
iii) Chastity moderates the use of the reproductive power.
iv) Modesty, in its stricter sense of propriety, governs other acts that are connected in some way with the sexual act.17
84a) The Virtue of Chastity (Related to the Sixth and Ninth Commandments)
The virtue of chastity is the part of temperance that moderates the desire for sexual pleasure according to the dictates of right reason (natural virtue) or reason enlightened by faith (supernatural virtue).18 This definition also includes the virtue of modesty. We will study both together.
Right reason discovers that the use of the reproductive power is intrinsically linked to the transmission of life. In the human species, the transmission of life cannot be separated from the education of children, both natural (corporal and spiritual) and supernatural.
Therefore, the use of sex according to right reason means that it be (1) within monogamous and indissoluble marriage, which is the only way of assuring comprehensive education, and (2) open to procreation, that is, without positively and voluntarily excluding it.
Right reason also points out that the acts that are related to the reproductive power—which is a gift of God and therefore good—are ordained to reproduction and are good insofar as they are united to the right use of that power.
Chastity renders the use of the body upright and noble, keeping man from inordinately pursuing the pleasure that God has attached to reproduction.19
(1) A joyful affirmation
Chastity has been referred to as a “joyful affirmation” to stress its positive value20: “When you decide firmly to lead a clean life, chastity will not be a burden on you: it will be a crown of triumph.”21
Indeed, chastity keeps body and heart unsullied and ready for human and divine love by controlling sensuality, which reduces the capacity to love. Chastity gives man fortitude and self-command, the ability to work and harbor great ideals: “It is a virtue that keeps love young in any state in life.”22
It is a battle, but not a renunciation. We respond with a joyful affirmation and give ourselves to him freely and cheerfully. Your conduct should not be limited to simply evading falls and occasions of sin. In no way should you let it come down to a cold and calculating negation.23
(2) Necessity and excellence of chastity
Though not the most important of virtues, chastity has a great relevance: “We know full well that theological charity is the highest virtue. But chastity is a means sine qua non (‘an indispensable condition’), if we are to establish an intimate dialogue with God. When people do not keep it, when they give up the fight, they end up becoming blind.”24 Actually, “it is precisely among the chaste where the most clean-cut men from every point of view are found. And among the impure abound the timid, the selfish, the hypocritical and the cruel—all characters of little manliness.”25
Aside from the benefits that it procures, the importance of chastity can be seen from the evils that are caused by its contrary vice, lust. Besides the damage to one’s character, lust causes many other evils: discord, injustices, neglect of duty, and loss of moral sense.
(3) Training in chastity
Spiritual and moral formation is extremely important in order to practice chastity. It implies both acquiring the right criteria and exerting effort to accommodate one’s behavior to these criteria.
The main purpose of training in chastity is “to refine our conscience. We must go sufficiently deep, until we can be sure our conscience is well formed and we can distinguish between a delicate conscience, which is a true grace from God, and a scrupulous conscience, which is not the same.”26
One of the points to clarify is that natural is what agrees with nature as created and ordained by God, and that normal is what follows the divine norm. People must also be taught to recognize sin as such, firmly rejecting any attempt to rationalize it. Unnecessary occasions of sin must be avoided, all the more if they become habitual.
The importance of small details of modesty must also be properly appreciated. People must be taught to be delicately on guard, “taking the battle to areas that are far removed from the main walls of the fortress. We cannot go about doing balancing acts on the very frontiers of evil.”27
The struggle against carnal lust involves purifying the heart and practicing temperance.28 A point to stress is that the traditional means of acquiring and upgrading this virtue are perfectly valid today. As in the past, these are:
· controlling one’s senses,
· avoiding dangerous occasions,
· corporal mortification,
· absolute sincerity in spiritual direction,
· receiving the sacraments frequently,
· serious and responsible work,
· a tender love for our Lady.29
Besides, one must be quick to react against temptations: “You know very well that a fight which is kept up from the beginning is a fight already won. Get away from danger as soon as you are aware of the first sparks of passion, and even before.”30
This training must be imparted and received in a positive way,31 cleanly, avoiding even the appearance of being obsessed by the subject: “I have never talked about impurity,” St. Josemaría Escrivá once remarked, “and I have always avoided falling into a distasteful and meaningless casuistry. But I have very often spoken, and will continue to speak about chastity, purity, and the joyful affirmation of love.”32
(4) Excellence of virginity and celibacy
Christ is the center of all Christian life. The bond with him takes precedence over all other bonds, familial or social.
Strictly speaking, virginity is the firm resolution to abstain from sexual pleasure by a person who has never experienced it. It is related to the virtue of chastity, but, as the definition shows, is not identical with it. Celibacy is the resolution to give up marriage for the love of the Kingdom of heaven. Christ himself has invited certain persons to follow him in this way of life, of which he remains the model.33
Both the Sacrament of Matrimony and virginity for the Kingdom of God come from the Lord himself. With the grace of God, those who are called to marriage find in this state all that is needed to reach sanctity, to grow more identified with Christ each day, and to bring the persons living with them closer to God.
Celibacy for supernatural reasons, however, is a gift from God that inclines man to surrender body and soul to the Lord, to offer him an undivided heart, not shared by any creature. As such, it is a more excellent state than marriage, as Holy Scripture (cf. Mt 19:11; 1 Cor 7:25–40; Rv 14:4) and the teaching of the Church declare.34
In any case, even though celibacy as a state is superior to marriage, married people are also called to the fullness of sanctity and can achieve it. What really matters is each person’s correspondence to his own vocation; the most perfect path for everyone is, always and exclusively, doing what God expects of him.
84b) Impurity
The vice contrary to chastity is lust or impurity. Impurity is a disorderly desire for sexual pleasure.35
Impurity can be consummated or unconsummated, depending on whether the sexual pleasure that accompanies the reproductive act is produced. Consummated sins of impurity are natural if they can result in procreation, unnatural if they cannot. Unconsummated impurity can be external or internal (imaginations, memories, or desires). The following principles can be laid down:
· Directly willed sexual pleasure outside marriage is always and essentially a mortal sin (ex toto genere suo); it does not admit slight matter (cf. Gal 5:19ff). In this field, no matter can be small enough to be considered a venial sin, because of the very strict divine commandment. This severity is due to the slippery nature of this vice; it is extremely easy to drift toward the most serious infractions (impurity is also called lubricity, from lubricus, “slippery”).
· Indirectly willed sexual pleasure may not be a sin. This happens when one performs an action that is good or indifferent in itself, but may cause sexual pleasure. One may not seek that pleasure, however, nor consent in it if it does happen, in which case it would become directly voluntary.36
Those actions would be licit only if there is a proportionately serious cause, as we saw for the morality of double effect actions. In this regard, one must be extremely sincere with himself and with his spiritual director so as not to consider as proportionate a cause that really is not, such as curiosity, or not wanting to be singled out in a pagan environment. When a proportionate cause does exist—as in the case of doctors and movie censors—one is bound to use all the ascetical means to avoid arousal and, if it does happen, to fend off the danger of yielding.
(1) Internal sins of impurity
As with internal sins in general, there are three types of internal sins of impurity:
i) Impure imagination, or deliberate pleasure (delectatio morosa), is taking pleasure in imaginative representations; the complacency in the impure action that is present in the imagination is without any desire for the action.
ii) Impure memory, or sinful delectation (gaudium peccaminosum), is the deliberate complacency in a previous sin of impurity, either one’s own or another’s.
iii) Impure desire (desiderium pravum), is the deliberate complacency in an impure act that one wishes or intends to do.
In all cases, the existence of sin requires deliberate complacency. Merely feeling the inclination to commit any of them without actual consent is not a sin.
(2) Unconsummated external sins of impurity
Spontaneous sexual arousal is not a sin as long as the will rejects it (there is no consent). If its cause was voluntary (voluntary in causa), the morality of the case must be judged according to the rules for indirectly voluntary actions that were discussed above.
Immodest actions (looks, embraces, or kisses) are evil insofar as they cause sexual pleasure, which, as we have seen, does not admit small matter (cf. Mt 5:28). If that pleasure is not sought and there is a reasonable cause—proportionate to the danger involved—then there is no sin. This may be true for some of these actions, but for others, there can never be a reasonable cause. If the cause is not proportionate to the danger, the sin that is incurred may be mortal or venial depending on how serious the lack of proportion is.
The same criteria on deliberately sought sexual pleasure apply to judging immodest conversations, plus the possible danger of scandal. If the intention is deliberately impure, there is a mortal sin no matter how slight the matter. Otherwise, they can be mortal sins or not, just like immodest actions.
The same criteria are applicable to movies, readings, shows, dances, and Internet browsing.
(3) Natural consummated sins of impurity
Six sins are usually listed under this heading:
i) Fornication is the sexual intercourse between unmarried persons with mutual consent. Aggravating circumstances are concubinage, when the sin is habitual, and prostitution.
ii) Rape implies violence and the opposition of one of the parties.
iii) Abduction is fornication with a kidnapped person.
iv) Incest is sexual intercourse between persons so related by consanguinity or affinity that natural or ecclesiastical law forbids them to marry each other.37
v) Adultery is sexual intercourse between two persons, at least one of whom is married to a third person.38
vi) Carnal sacrilege is committed when one of the partners is a sacred person.
In all cases, the sin of impurity is the same. In all except the first, however, there is also a sin against justice and, in the last case, against religion as well.
(4) Unnatural consummated sins of impurity
These are voluntary pollution or masturbation,39 sodomy, bestiality, and homosexuality.40
Both the Magisterium of the Church, in the course of a constant tradition, and the moral sense of the faithful have been in no doubt and have firmly maintained that masturbation is an intrinsically and gravely disordered action.… The deliberate use of the sexual faculty, for whatever reason, outside marriage is essentially contrary to its purpose. For here sexual pleasure is sought outside of the sexual relationship that is demanded by the moral order. In the context of true love, the total meaning of mutual self-giving and human procreation is achieved only within that morally upright sexual relationship.41
Sacred Scripture presents homosexual acts as acts of grave depravity (cf. Gn 19:1–29; Rom 1:24–27; 1 Cor 6:10; 1 Tm 1:10). Thus, the Church has always declared that homosexual acts are intrinsically disordered. They are contrary to the natural law. They close the sexual act to the gift of life. They do not proceed from a genuine affective and sexual compatibility.42
Nevertheless, homosexual persons are called to chastity. By the virtue of self-mastery (which will give them inner freedom), prayer, and sacramental grace (received in the Sacraments of Penance and Eucharist), they can and should gradually and resolutely grow in Christian perfection. As persons, they must be accepted with respect, compassion, and sensitivity.
84c) The Virtue of Sobriety
The virtue of temperance is called sobriety when it regulates the desire and use of intoxicating drinks.43
When the abuse of such drinks leads to losing one’s use of reason (drunkenness), a mortal sin is committed (cf. 1 Cor 6:10; Is 5:11; Gal 5:21), unless this result is unforeseen and unexpected, as in the case of Noah (cf. Gn 9:20–22).
Imperfect drunkenness in itself is a venial sin. Nevertheless, it can easily become mortal because of its consequences, if these could or should have been foreseen, even dimly. This is the case, for instance, of drinking before driving.
(1) Drug abuse
The abuse of drugs44 can be studied here by analogy. By drugs, we understand any substance—with or without medical applications—that is self-administered for non-medical purposes, causing a physiological or psychological alteration. The resultant condition may be pleasant or unpleasant. In the first case, drugs are usually addicting, that is, they gradually lead to the need for larger doses, creating a state of dependence on the part of the consumer.
Addiction is a more or less irresistible urge to habitually consume a certain drug. Its nature can be physiological, psychological, or both. Sudden interruption of supply causes a typical and violent reaction called withdrawal syndrome. Its actual symptoms vary widely with age, degree of tolerance, and type of drug. However, in all cases, it produces serious or even very serious psychopathic alterations. In some cases, the dependence may be so strong that the subject feels the compulsion to use any licit or illicit means to satisfy his craving.
The term soft drugs is commonly applied to marijuana, hashish, amphetamines, and some sedatives and analgesics.
(2) Stages of drug abuse
In order to properly assess the morality of soft drugs, we must distinguish between occasional use, habitual use, and intoxication.
· Occasional use is the administration of one single dose only once or in a sporadic way. If the dose is small, this does not usually cause predisposition or dependence. The effects are within the self-control capacity of a normal person, although exceptional reactions are also possible. However, very seldom can the consumer be called a normal person; drug use is ordinarily related to personality conflicts, difficulties, and moral problems. It is unusual for a well-balanced person, settled in life and with healthy habits, to fall into the curiosity of “trying” what can easily lead to disastrous results. In any case, there is a real need to warn the public about the danger of getting addicted to these products out of curiosity and misinformation, mistakenly thinking that “soft” drugs are safe.
· Habitual use is the use of drugs in a chronic way. It is not easy to say when periodic use becomes habitual use (or rather abuse) of drugs. It depends on the person, frequency of use, dosage level, and chemical purity of the drug—the latter is practically impossible to ascertain, given the clandestine nature of drug traffic.
Since the organism gets used to the drug, in order to obtain the same gratification, one has to keep increasing the dosage and frequency. This is the phenomenon of tolerance. As the habituation of the organism increases, a larger and larger dose is needed for the subject to experience the same feelings. The user thus gradually loses control of himself, and the drug increases its tyranny over him. He is already on the way to dependence, and in close danger of intoxication. Those who have reached continuous usage feel deeply unable to understand whoever warns them of the immorality of their conduct. This breach of communication must be bridged in time with appropriate clarifications based on ethical and medical grounds. Medicine shows that marijuana causes very serious harm, in spite of its being falsely publicized as harmless and even safer than alcohol and tobacco.
· Intoxication is the state or condition that results from the abuse of drugs. It has serious effects on the organism, even death in some cases. It should be kept in mind that drugs used in combination with alcohol, sedatives, and other drugs have an enhanced effect.
(3) Moral evil of drug abuse
We will see now the moral character of each type of drug abuse:
· Morality of occasional use. Although the occasional use of soft drugs does not cause serious alterations in the organism, it should be considered in principle as a serious sin. It means risking the danger of a potentially serious sin. It endangers psychological health, increases propensity to impurity, may cause scandal, and constitutes a proximate danger of slipping down the path of vice. Besides, it constitutes an infraction of civil laws with direct moral roots and implications. Their transgression is usually considered a serious crime.
Some moralists take a rather abstract approach, thinking that occasional use of soft drugs should be judged just as alcohol consumption. Their use, these moralists argue, could be licit if there is a just and proportionate reason and it is taken in small doses that would neither harm one’s health, diminish the use of reason, nor have negative side effects like raw-nerve irascibility and sexual excitability. This means that a responsible and mature person who, avoiding any danger of scandal, occasionally consumes a so-called soft drug—out of curiosity or for any other reason—would not commit a sin or, at least, not a serious sin.
But this is not the case of those who start using soft drugs from time to time. The first thing to question is their very name. “Soft” seems to mean that their moderate use is harmless, but this is not really true; recent research shows that they are indeed dangerous.
In short, occasional use of soft drugs may be a venial sin in some theoretical, exceptional case. In fact, though, it is doubtless a serious sin. Some circumstances may make it even more serious: age (teenagers, youths), purpose (escaping reality, making sins of impurity easier), environments in which drugs are consumed, or moral danger of getting involved in the underworld of narcotics traffic and of cooperating even remotely with it. The problem gets even worse in the case of teenagers who start taking drugs at parties, or within their groups of friends. Aside from the guilt of their own consumption, they initiate others by peer pressure, which implies a sin of scandal and cooperation in evil.
· Morality of habitual use. After some time, there is a clear and proximate danger—even moral certitude—of becoming a drug addict. This implies a misuse of one’s life and faculties.
As was said before, this abuse “is a grave offense.”45 It is no longer a matter of losing one’s health and rational control over one’s acts; there is even a more or less proximate danger of morally serious effects for oneself and others.
· Morality of intoxication. After what has been said about habitual use and knowing its harmful effects, it is clear that intoxication is a serious sin.
· Clandestine production of and trafficking in drugs are scandalous practices. They constitute direct cooperation in evil, since they encourage people to engage in practices that are gravely contrary to the moral law.
84d) The Virtue of Abstinence
Abstinence is the moral virtue that inclines man to moderate the use of food according to the dictates of right reason (natural virtue) or reason enlightened by faith (supernatural virtue) for his moral good. Drinks whose main purpose is nutritional are also included.
Fasting means taking less food than what natural abstinence would recommend, for ascetical reasons and according to certain positive laws. It does not mean totally abstaining from food for a given time.
Fasting as a penitential practice is an ancient tradition and has always been recommended by the Church (cf. 2 Cor 6:5; Jl 2:12).
The seasons and days of penance (Lent, and each Friday of the year) are particularly appropriate for voluntary self-denial such as fasting. The ecclesiastical laws that are now in force prescribe compulsory fasting47 only on two days: Ash Wednesday and Good Friday. All the members of the Church over 18 and under 60 are bound to fast. The law of fast does not apply in cases in which fasting would cause a serious harm (heavy work, sickness). The prescribed fast consists in taking only one full meal on that day, although small amounts of food are allowed in two other moments: a very frugal breakfast and supper, for example.
Present ecclesiastical law on compulsory abstinence forbids the eating of meat on all Fridays of the year (except on holy days of obligation) and on Ash Wednesday. On Fridays outside Lent, this practice can be commuted for works of penance, charity, or devotion. All the members of the Church above 14 years are bound to observe abstinence, with the same exceptions as fasting.
There is a serious obligation to observe fast and abstinence laws. Deliberate substantial disobedience is a serious sin. Not observing abstinence one day is not a serious sin, since it is not a substantial transgression.
Moral impossibility exempts from both laws; one is not bound to abstain if meat is the only food available; the poor who regularly lack sufficient food are not bound to fast. Dispensation on just grounds also exempts from both laws.
The vice contrary to abstinence is gluttony. It can be defined as an inordinate inclination to food.47 Manifestations of this vice are eating continuously, eating outside mealtimes, choosiness, eating to excess, greedily gulping food, and eating excessively expensive food. This shows that good table manners have a deeper value than is commonly realized.
Gluttony is in itself a venial sin. It can become mortal if it causes serious danger to health or grave scandal.
Footnotes:
1. Cf. CCC, 1808, 1837, 2848.
2. Cf. Ibid., 2473–2474; ST, II-II, q. 124, a. 5.
3. Cf. ST, II-II, q. 129, a. 3 ad 3; ad 5; a. 4 ad 2.
4. Cf. Ibid., II-II, q. 134, a. 3.
5. Cf. Ibid., II-II, q. 136, a. 4 ad 2.
6. Cf. Ibid., II-II, q. 137, a. 3.
7. Cf. CCC, 1809, 2514–2533.
8. Cf. ST, II-II, q. 141, a. 4.
9. Cf. Ibid., II-II, q. 141, a. 4 ad 4; CCC, 2521–2524.
10. Cf. ST, II-II, q. 145, a. 4.
11. Cf. Ibid., II-II, q. 161, a. 4 ad 3.
12. Cf. Ibid., II-II, q. 160, a. 2.
13. Cf. Ibid., II-II, q. 35, a. 1 ad 3.
14. Cf. Ibid., III, q. 49, a. 6; q. 53, a. 1; q. 54, a. 2.
15. St. Josemaría Escrivá, Friends of God, 100.
16. Ibid., 101.
17. Cf. ST, II-II, q. 143.
18. Cf. CCC, 2337–2391.
19. Cf. St. Josemaría Escrivá, Christ is Passing By, 25.
20. Cf. Ibid., 5; Friends of God, 177, 182.
21. St. Josemaría Escrivá, The Way, 123.
22. St. Josemaría Escrivá, Christ is Passing By, 25.
23. St. Josemaría Escrivá, Friends of God, 182.
24. Ibid., 175.
25. St. Josemaría Escrivá, The Way, 124.
26. St. Josemaría Escrivá, Friends of God, 185.
27. Ibid., 186.
28. Cf. CCC, 2517–2533.
29. Cf. St. Josemaría Escrivá, Friends of God, 185.
30. Ibid., 182.
31. Cf. Ibid., 178.
32. St. Josemaría Escrivá, Christ is Passing By, 25.
33. Cf. CCC, 1618–1620.
34. Cf. DS 1810; PO, 16.
35. Cf. CCC, 2351–2356.
36. Cf. ST, II-II, q. 154, a. 4.
37. Cf. CCC, 2388.
38. Cf. Ibid., 2380–2386.
39. Cf. Ibid., 2352.
40. Cf. Ibid., 2357–2359.
41. Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, Decl. Persona Humana, 9; cf. CCC, 2352.
42. Cf. CCC, 2357–2359.
43. Cf. Ibid., 2290.
44. Cf. Ibid., 2291.
45. Ibid., 2291.
46. Cf. Ibid., 1438, 2043; CIC, 1249–53.
47. Cf. ST, II-II, q. 148, a. 1.
78. The Virtue of Fortitude
Fortitude is the cardinal virtue that strengthens the will so that it does not give up in its pursuit of a good that is seen as difficult by natural reason (human virtue) or by reason enlightened by faith (supernatural virtue).1
A further qualification is usually added to this definition: The will does not give up even in the face of the greatest danger for corporeal life. This stresses the force (hence fortitude) that this virtue lends to the will when it is complete or perfect.
This virtue controls the influence that feelings (passions) of fear and audacity have on the will. The acts of fortitude tend to suppress both excessive fear and recklessness.
Since Christian life is a continuous struggle to better fulfill the divine will, fortitude and its related virtues are extremely important. Their concrete manifestations are manifold: constancy in work, perseverance in the face of temptations and difficulties, measuring up to costly duties and difficult environments, speaking about God without human respects, correcting evildoers, and boldly undertaking risky or heavy tasks.
The ultimate though exceptional act of fortitude is martyrdom: the endurance of death in witness to the truth of Christianity.2
Strictly speaking, martyrdom requires three conditions: (1) actual death; (2) a death that is inflicted out of hatred for Christian truth; (3) voluntary acceptance of death.
Martyrdom completely justifies the sinner, whether baptized or not, adult or infant. Being the ultimate act of charity, all venial sins and all temporal punishments are remitted. Martyrs go straight to heaven. They also merit a great increase in glory.
79. The Potential Parts of Fortitude
There are four virtues that are related to fortitude: magnanimity, munificence, patience, and perseverance. These are usually called potential parts of fortitude, that is, virtues that are similar to fortitude, but not completely identical.
79a) Magnanimity
Magnanimity (from magnus animus, “great soul”) is the virtue that inclines man to undertake great deeds in every virtue.
According to Aristotle and St. Thomas, the magnanimous man does not delight excessively in receiving honors, no matter how great; neither is he greatly affected by prosperity or adversity. He is happy to help others. He is great among the great, that is, he does not flatter them and he does not allow them to curtail his freedom. With ordinary people, he is unassuming. He is not ambitious nor a social climber. Neither fearing others nor seeking their praise, he openly speaks what he has in his mind when necessary. He forgets offenses. He is not rash but takes his actions deliberately.3
79b) Munificence
Munificence (from munus facere, “to make presents”) is the moral virtue that inclines man to undertake great and costly works in spite of the effort or expenses that are required.4
79c) Patience
Patience (from pati, “to suffer”) is the moral virtue that inclines people to suffer present evils without excessive sorrow, especially those that are inflicted by others.5
Patience has several successive degrees: to suffer evils without backbiting, to suffer evils without groaning or complaining to others, to suffer evils with joy.
These degrees apply to both the human and the supernatural virtue. The apostles reacted with this highest degree of patience when they rejoiced over being scourged for the sake of Christ’s name (cf. Acts 5:40–42).
79d) Perseverance
Perseverance is the moral virtue that inclines man to continue in the exercise of virtue according to the dictates of right reason (or reason enlightened by faith) in spite of the wear and tear and the monotony of repetition.6
80. Vices Contrary to these Virtues
80a) Opposed to Fortitude
· Cowardice or timidity is an inordinate fear of temporal ills.
· Fearlessness or impassibility is a lack or disregard of fear when fear is reasonable.
· Recklessness or temerity consists in risking danger without a proportionate cause.
80b) Opposed to Magnanimity
· Presumption inclines to undertake works that exceed the capacity of the subject.
· Ambition is an inordinate longing for honors.
· Vainglory is an inordinate desire for personal glory.
· Pusillanimity (from pusillus animus, “small soul”) inclines man to shy away from works that he deems to exceed his strength, when in fact they do not.
80c) Opposed to Munificence
· Prodigality inclines to unnecessary and unreasonable great expenses.
· Stinginess leads to niggardly and unreasonably restricting necessary expenses.
80d) Opposed to Patience
· Insensibility, or lack of feeling, inclines man to be unmoved by any difficulty, as if he could not notice it.
· Impatience leads to yielding easily to obstacles, often reacting with complaints or anger.
80e) Opposed to Perseverance
· Pertinacity or stubbornness inclines man not to yield when it would be reasonable to do so.
· Inconstancy consists in easily giving up the practice of virtue as soon as difficulties arise.
TEMPERANCE AND ITS PARTS
81. The Virtue of Temperance
Temperance is the cardinal virtue that regulates the pursuit of pleasure according to right reason (human virtue) or reason enlightened by faith (supernatural virtue).7
Faith may move reason to decide quite differently than it would with merely natural considerations. Thus, in the pleasures of food, natural reason would consider only the demands of bodily health and its effect on the intellectual and volitive life of man. With the light of revelation, reason must also consider the supernatural good and the consequent need for mortification and penance, and may decide to fast. Generally speaking, we can say that supernatural temperance adds to the acts of its natural counterpart the need for mortification for supernatural reasons.
In a broad sense, temperance moderates the enjoyment of all pleasures, both corporeal and spiritual. It may, thus, lead to not paying excessive attention to feelings and consolations in mental prayer.
For practical reasons, however, temperance is usually understood in its stricter sense, as the virtue that moderates the pursuit of pleasure in food, drink, and sex.8 The very term temperance refers to the object of this restraint: avoiding unreasonable excesses in the pursuit of these pleasures.
82. Integral Parts of Temperance
The integral parts of temperance are habits that facilitate the exercise of temperance.
The first integral part of temperance is the sense of shame. It is not properly a virtue, since, at times, it does not incline to good; one may feel ashamed to perform certain good actions. It is a worthy feeling that makes people shy away from base and lewd things. This shame (or modesty) is a useful help in avoiding any debasing behavior, for example, in the field of chastity.9
The second integral part of temperance is honesty (or decorum), which, in the stricter and now uncommon sense, is love of propriety and of anything clean, beautiful, and well-done.10
83. Potential Parts of Temperance
As we saw with the other virtues, potential parts are those virtues that closely resemble but are not completely identical with the main virtue. Although not all authors agree on this, the potential parts of the virtue of temperance are the following:
· Continence is the virtue that inclines the will to resist passions, especially those concerned with touch.
· Meekness is the moral virtue that moves the will to resist the passion of anger.
· Clemency is the virtue that inclines to reducing or even remitting due punishment insofar as this is reasonable.
· Modesty regulates external physical movements and appearance, and moderation regulates the use of external things, so that both are in line with one’s state and situation in life.
· Humility is a part of temperance,11 but it has a special importance in moral life. In a certain way, humility is the foundation of all other virtues, just as its contrary vice—pride—is the root of all sins. On account of this, we will consider humility in more detail.
Humility is the virtue that inclines man to curb his inordinate desire for personal excellence, and recognize his own insignificance in the face of God and his right standing in relation to others.12
Humility leads one to be realistic about one’s situation and consider one’s own defects in order to avoid undue self-exaltation. It also leads one to acknowledge the gifts that are received from God and act accordingly.13
The preeminent example of humility was set by Jesus Christ, who “emptied himself, taking the form of a servant, being born in the likeness of men. And being found in human form he humbled himself and became obedient unto death, even death on a cross” (Phil 2:6–8).14
In order to avoid and vanquish pride, constant vigilance and positive acts of humility are absolutely necessary: “When pride takes hold of a soul, it is no surprise to find it bringing along with it a whole string of other vices: greed, self-indulgence, envy, injustice. The proud man is always vainly striving to dethrone God, who is merciful to all his creatures, so as to make room for himself and his ever cruel ways.”15
It should be noted that pride is not an exclusive vice of the great and the mighty. “We have to fight against other forms of pride that are more subtle, and more frequent: against the pride of preferring our own excellence to that of our neighbor; against vanity in our conversations, thoughts and gestures; against an almost sickly touchiness that takes offense at words and actions that are in no way meant to be insulting.”16
84. Subjective Parts of Temperance
Four subjective parts or aspects of temperance are distinguished, according to the objects that they govern:
i) Abstinence controls the use of food.
ii) Sobriety regulates the use of intoxicating drinks.
iii) Chastity moderates the use of the reproductive power.
iv) Modesty, in its stricter sense of propriety, governs other acts that are connected in some way with the sexual act.17
84a) The Virtue of Chastity (Related to the Sixth and Ninth Commandments)
The virtue of chastity is the part of temperance that moderates the desire for sexual pleasure according to the dictates of right reason (natural virtue) or reason enlightened by faith (supernatural virtue).18 This definition also includes the virtue of modesty. We will study both together.
Right reason discovers that the use of the reproductive power is intrinsically linked to the transmission of life. In the human species, the transmission of life cannot be separated from the education of children, both natural (corporal and spiritual) and supernatural.
Therefore, the use of sex according to right reason means that it be (1) within monogamous and indissoluble marriage, which is the only way of assuring comprehensive education, and (2) open to procreation, that is, without positively and voluntarily excluding it.
Right reason also points out that the acts that are related to the reproductive power—which is a gift of God and therefore good—are ordained to reproduction and are good insofar as they are united to the right use of that power.
Chastity renders the use of the body upright and noble, keeping man from inordinately pursuing the pleasure that God has attached to reproduction.19
(1) A joyful affirmation
Chastity has been referred to as a “joyful affirmation” to stress its positive value20: “When you decide firmly to lead a clean life, chastity will not be a burden on you: it will be a crown of triumph.”21
Indeed, chastity keeps body and heart unsullied and ready for human and divine love by controlling sensuality, which reduces the capacity to love. Chastity gives man fortitude and self-command, the ability to work and harbor great ideals: “It is a virtue that keeps love young in any state in life.”22
It is a battle, but not a renunciation. We respond with a joyful affirmation and give ourselves to him freely and cheerfully. Your conduct should not be limited to simply evading falls and occasions of sin. In no way should you let it come down to a cold and calculating negation.23
(2) Necessity and excellence of chastity
Though not the most important of virtues, chastity has a great relevance: “We know full well that theological charity is the highest virtue. But chastity is a means sine qua non (‘an indispensable condition’), if we are to establish an intimate dialogue with God. When people do not keep it, when they give up the fight, they end up becoming blind.”24 Actually, “it is precisely among the chaste where the most clean-cut men from every point of view are found. And among the impure abound the timid, the selfish, the hypocritical and the cruel—all characters of little manliness.”25
Aside from the benefits that it procures, the importance of chastity can be seen from the evils that are caused by its contrary vice, lust. Besides the damage to one’s character, lust causes many other evils: discord, injustices, neglect of duty, and loss of moral sense.
(3) Training in chastity
Spiritual and moral formation is extremely important in order to practice chastity. It implies both acquiring the right criteria and exerting effort to accommodate one’s behavior to these criteria.
The main purpose of training in chastity is “to refine our conscience. We must go sufficiently deep, until we can be sure our conscience is well formed and we can distinguish between a delicate conscience, which is a true grace from God, and a scrupulous conscience, which is not the same.”26
One of the points to clarify is that natural is what agrees with nature as created and ordained by God, and that normal is what follows the divine norm. People must also be taught to recognize sin as such, firmly rejecting any attempt to rationalize it. Unnecessary occasions of sin must be avoided, all the more if they become habitual.
The importance of small details of modesty must also be properly appreciated. People must be taught to be delicately on guard, “taking the battle to areas that are far removed from the main walls of the fortress. We cannot go about doing balancing acts on the very frontiers of evil.”27
The struggle against carnal lust involves purifying the heart and practicing temperance.28 A point to stress is that the traditional means of acquiring and upgrading this virtue are perfectly valid today. As in the past, these are:
· controlling one’s senses,
· avoiding dangerous occasions,
· corporal mortification,
· absolute sincerity in spiritual direction,
· receiving the sacraments frequently,
· serious and responsible work,
· a tender love for our Lady.29
Besides, one must be quick to react against temptations: “You know very well that a fight which is kept up from the beginning is a fight already won. Get away from danger as soon as you are aware of the first sparks of passion, and even before.”30
This training must be imparted and received in a positive way,31 cleanly, avoiding even the appearance of being obsessed by the subject: “I have never talked about impurity,” St. Josemaría Escrivá once remarked, “and I have always avoided falling into a distasteful and meaningless casuistry. But I have very often spoken, and will continue to speak about chastity, purity, and the joyful affirmation of love.”32
(4) Excellence of virginity and celibacy
Christ is the center of all Christian life. The bond with him takes precedence over all other bonds, familial or social.
Strictly speaking, virginity is the firm resolution to abstain from sexual pleasure by a person who has never experienced it. It is related to the virtue of chastity, but, as the definition shows, is not identical with it. Celibacy is the resolution to give up marriage for the love of the Kingdom of heaven. Christ himself has invited certain persons to follow him in this way of life, of which he remains the model.33
Both the Sacrament of Matrimony and virginity for the Kingdom of God come from the Lord himself. With the grace of God, those who are called to marriage find in this state all that is needed to reach sanctity, to grow more identified with Christ each day, and to bring the persons living with them closer to God.
Celibacy for supernatural reasons, however, is a gift from God that inclines man to surrender body and soul to the Lord, to offer him an undivided heart, not shared by any creature. As such, it is a more excellent state than marriage, as Holy Scripture (cf. Mt 19:11; 1 Cor 7:25–40; Rv 14:4) and the teaching of the Church declare.34
In any case, even though celibacy as a state is superior to marriage, married people are also called to the fullness of sanctity and can achieve it. What really matters is each person’s correspondence to his own vocation; the most perfect path for everyone is, always and exclusively, doing what God expects of him.
84b) Impurity
The vice contrary to chastity is lust or impurity. Impurity is a disorderly desire for sexual pleasure.35
Impurity can be consummated or unconsummated, depending on whether the sexual pleasure that accompanies the reproductive act is produced. Consummated sins of impurity are natural if they can result in procreation, unnatural if they cannot. Unconsummated impurity can be external or internal (imaginations, memories, or desires). The following principles can be laid down:
· Directly willed sexual pleasure outside marriage is always and essentially a mortal sin (ex toto genere suo); it does not admit slight matter (cf. Gal 5:19ff). In this field, no matter can be small enough to be considered a venial sin, because of the very strict divine commandment. This severity is due to the slippery nature of this vice; it is extremely easy to drift toward the most serious infractions (impurity is also called lubricity, from lubricus, “slippery”).
· Indirectly willed sexual pleasure may not be a sin. This happens when one performs an action that is good or indifferent in itself, but may cause sexual pleasure. One may not seek that pleasure, however, nor consent in it if it does happen, in which case it would become directly voluntary.36
Those actions would be licit only if there is a proportionately serious cause, as we saw for the morality of double effect actions. In this regard, one must be extremely sincere with himself and with his spiritual director so as not to consider as proportionate a cause that really is not, such as curiosity, or not wanting to be singled out in a pagan environment. When a proportionate cause does exist—as in the case of doctors and movie censors—one is bound to use all the ascetical means to avoid arousal and, if it does happen, to fend off the danger of yielding.
(1) Internal sins of impurity
As with internal sins in general, there are three types of internal sins of impurity:
i) Impure imagination, or deliberate pleasure (delectatio morosa), is taking pleasure in imaginative representations; the complacency in the impure action that is present in the imagination is without any desire for the action.
ii) Impure memory, or sinful delectation (gaudium peccaminosum), is the deliberate complacency in a previous sin of impurity, either one’s own or another’s.
iii) Impure desire (desiderium pravum), is the deliberate complacency in an impure act that one wishes or intends to do.
In all cases, the existence of sin requires deliberate complacency. Merely feeling the inclination to commit any of them without actual consent is not a sin.
(2) Unconsummated external sins of impurity
Spontaneous sexual arousal is not a sin as long as the will rejects it (there is no consent). If its cause was voluntary (voluntary in causa), the morality of the case must be judged according to the rules for indirectly voluntary actions that were discussed above.
Immodest actions (looks, embraces, or kisses) are evil insofar as they cause sexual pleasure, which, as we have seen, does not admit small matter (cf. Mt 5:28). If that pleasure is not sought and there is a reasonable cause—proportionate to the danger involved—then there is no sin. This may be true for some of these actions, but for others, there can never be a reasonable cause. If the cause is not proportionate to the danger, the sin that is incurred may be mortal or venial depending on how serious the lack of proportion is.
The same criteria on deliberately sought sexual pleasure apply to judging immodest conversations, plus the possible danger of scandal. If the intention is deliberately impure, there is a mortal sin no matter how slight the matter. Otherwise, they can be mortal sins or not, just like immodest actions.
The same criteria are applicable to movies, readings, shows, dances, and Internet browsing.
(3) Natural consummated sins of impurity
Six sins are usually listed under this heading:
i) Fornication is the sexual intercourse between unmarried persons with mutual consent. Aggravating circumstances are concubinage, when the sin is habitual, and prostitution.
ii) Rape implies violence and the opposition of one of the parties.
iii) Abduction is fornication with a kidnapped person.
iv) Incest is sexual intercourse between persons so related by consanguinity or affinity that natural or ecclesiastical law forbids them to marry each other.37
v) Adultery is sexual intercourse between two persons, at least one of whom is married to a third person.38
vi) Carnal sacrilege is committed when one of the partners is a sacred person.
In all cases, the sin of impurity is the same. In all except the first, however, there is also a sin against justice and, in the last case, against religion as well.
(4) Unnatural consummated sins of impurity
These are voluntary pollution or masturbation,39 sodomy, bestiality, and homosexuality.40
Both the Magisterium of the Church, in the course of a constant tradition, and the moral sense of the faithful have been in no doubt and have firmly maintained that masturbation is an intrinsically and gravely disordered action.… The deliberate use of the sexual faculty, for whatever reason, outside marriage is essentially contrary to its purpose. For here sexual pleasure is sought outside of the sexual relationship that is demanded by the moral order. In the context of true love, the total meaning of mutual self-giving and human procreation is achieved only within that morally upright sexual relationship.41
Sacred Scripture presents homosexual acts as acts of grave depravity (cf. Gn 19:1–29; Rom 1:24–27; 1 Cor 6:10; 1 Tm 1:10). Thus, the Church has always declared that homosexual acts are intrinsically disordered. They are contrary to the natural law. They close the sexual act to the gift of life. They do not proceed from a genuine affective and sexual compatibility.42
Nevertheless, homosexual persons are called to chastity. By the virtue of self-mastery (which will give them inner freedom), prayer, and sacramental grace (received in the Sacraments of Penance and Eucharist), they can and should gradually and resolutely grow in Christian perfection. As persons, they must be accepted with respect, compassion, and sensitivity.
84c) The Virtue of Sobriety
The virtue of temperance is called sobriety when it regulates the desire and use of intoxicating drinks.43
When the abuse of such drinks leads to losing one’s use of reason (drunkenness), a mortal sin is committed (cf. 1 Cor 6:10; Is 5:11; Gal 5:21), unless this result is unforeseen and unexpected, as in the case of Noah (cf. Gn 9:20–22).
Imperfect drunkenness in itself is a venial sin. Nevertheless, it can easily become mortal because of its consequences, if these could or should have been foreseen, even dimly. This is the case, for instance, of drinking before driving.
(1) Drug abuse
The abuse of drugs44 can be studied here by analogy. By drugs, we understand any substance—with or without medical applications—that is self-administered for non-medical purposes, causing a physiological or psychological alteration. The resultant condition may be pleasant or unpleasant. In the first case, drugs are usually addicting, that is, they gradually lead to the need for larger doses, creating a state of dependence on the part of the consumer.
Addiction is a more or less irresistible urge to habitually consume a certain drug. Its nature can be physiological, psychological, or both. Sudden interruption of supply causes a typical and violent reaction called withdrawal syndrome. Its actual symptoms vary widely with age, degree of tolerance, and type of drug. However, in all cases, it produces serious or even very serious psychopathic alterations. In some cases, the dependence may be so strong that the subject feels the compulsion to use any licit or illicit means to satisfy his craving.
The term soft drugs is commonly applied to marijuana, hashish, amphetamines, and some sedatives and analgesics.
(2) Stages of drug abuse
In order to properly assess the morality of soft drugs, we must distinguish between occasional use, habitual use, and intoxication.
· Occasional use is the administration of one single dose only once or in a sporadic way. If the dose is small, this does not usually cause predisposition or dependence. The effects are within the self-control capacity of a normal person, although exceptional reactions are also possible. However, very seldom can the consumer be called a normal person; drug use is ordinarily related to personality conflicts, difficulties, and moral problems. It is unusual for a well-balanced person, settled in life and with healthy habits, to fall into the curiosity of “trying” what can easily lead to disastrous results. In any case, there is a real need to warn the public about the danger of getting addicted to these products out of curiosity and misinformation, mistakenly thinking that “soft” drugs are safe.
· Habitual use is the use of drugs in a chronic way. It is not easy to say when periodic use becomes habitual use (or rather abuse) of drugs. It depends on the person, frequency of use, dosage level, and chemical purity of the drug—the latter is practically impossible to ascertain, given the clandestine nature of drug traffic.
Since the organism gets used to the drug, in order to obtain the same gratification, one has to keep increasing the dosage and frequency. This is the phenomenon of tolerance. As the habituation of the organism increases, a larger and larger dose is needed for the subject to experience the same feelings. The user thus gradually loses control of himself, and the drug increases its tyranny over him. He is already on the way to dependence, and in close danger of intoxication. Those who have reached continuous usage feel deeply unable to understand whoever warns them of the immorality of their conduct. This breach of communication must be bridged in time with appropriate clarifications based on ethical and medical grounds. Medicine shows that marijuana causes very serious harm, in spite of its being falsely publicized as harmless and even safer than alcohol and tobacco.
· Intoxication is the state or condition that results from the abuse of drugs. It has serious effects on the organism, even death in some cases. It should be kept in mind that drugs used in combination with alcohol, sedatives, and other drugs have an enhanced effect.
(3) Moral evil of drug abuse
We will see now the moral character of each type of drug abuse:
· Morality of occasional use. Although the occasional use of soft drugs does not cause serious alterations in the organism, it should be considered in principle as a serious sin. It means risking the danger of a potentially serious sin. It endangers psychological health, increases propensity to impurity, may cause scandal, and constitutes a proximate danger of slipping down the path of vice. Besides, it constitutes an infraction of civil laws with direct moral roots and implications. Their transgression is usually considered a serious crime.
Some moralists take a rather abstract approach, thinking that occasional use of soft drugs should be judged just as alcohol consumption. Their use, these moralists argue, could be licit if there is a just and proportionate reason and it is taken in small doses that would neither harm one’s health, diminish the use of reason, nor have negative side effects like raw-nerve irascibility and sexual excitability. This means that a responsible and mature person who, avoiding any danger of scandal, occasionally consumes a so-called soft drug—out of curiosity or for any other reason—would not commit a sin or, at least, not a serious sin.
But this is not the case of those who start using soft drugs from time to time. The first thing to question is their very name. “Soft” seems to mean that their moderate use is harmless, but this is not really true; recent research shows that they are indeed dangerous.
In short, occasional use of soft drugs may be a venial sin in some theoretical, exceptional case. In fact, though, it is doubtless a serious sin. Some circumstances may make it even more serious: age (teenagers, youths), purpose (escaping reality, making sins of impurity easier), environments in which drugs are consumed, or moral danger of getting involved in the underworld of narcotics traffic and of cooperating even remotely with it. The problem gets even worse in the case of teenagers who start taking drugs at parties, or within their groups of friends. Aside from the guilt of their own consumption, they initiate others by peer pressure, which implies a sin of scandal and cooperation in evil.
· Morality of habitual use. After some time, there is a clear and proximate danger—even moral certitude—of becoming a drug addict. This implies a misuse of one’s life and faculties.
As was said before, this abuse “is a grave offense.”45 It is no longer a matter of losing one’s health and rational control over one’s acts; there is even a more or less proximate danger of morally serious effects for oneself and others.
· Morality of intoxication. After what has been said about habitual use and knowing its harmful effects, it is clear that intoxication is a serious sin.
· Clandestine production of and trafficking in drugs are scandalous practices. They constitute direct cooperation in evil, since they encourage people to engage in practices that are gravely contrary to the moral law.
84d) The Virtue of Abstinence
Abstinence is the moral virtue that inclines man to moderate the use of food according to the dictates of right reason (natural virtue) or reason enlightened by faith (supernatural virtue) for his moral good. Drinks whose main purpose is nutritional are also included.
Fasting means taking less food than what natural abstinence would recommend, for ascetical reasons and according to certain positive laws. It does not mean totally abstaining from food for a given time.
Fasting as a penitential practice is an ancient tradition and has always been recommended by the Church (cf. 2 Cor 6:5; Jl 2:12).
The seasons and days of penance (Lent, and each Friday of the year) are particularly appropriate for voluntary self-denial such as fasting. The ecclesiastical laws that are now in force prescribe compulsory fasting47 only on two days: Ash Wednesday and Good Friday. All the members of the Church over 18 and under 60 are bound to fast. The law of fast does not apply in cases in which fasting would cause a serious harm (heavy work, sickness). The prescribed fast consists in taking only one full meal on that day, although small amounts of food are allowed in two other moments: a very frugal breakfast and supper, for example.
Present ecclesiastical law on compulsory abstinence forbids the eating of meat on all Fridays of the year (except on holy days of obligation) and on Ash Wednesday. On Fridays outside Lent, this practice can be commuted for works of penance, charity, or devotion. All the members of the Church above 14 years are bound to observe abstinence, with the same exceptions as fasting.
There is a serious obligation to observe fast and abstinence laws. Deliberate substantial disobedience is a serious sin. Not observing abstinence one day is not a serious sin, since it is not a substantial transgression.
Moral impossibility exempts from both laws; one is not bound to abstain if meat is the only food available; the poor who regularly lack sufficient food are not bound to fast. Dispensation on just grounds also exempts from both laws.
The vice contrary to abstinence is gluttony. It can be defined as an inordinate inclination to food.47 Manifestations of this vice are eating continuously, eating outside mealtimes, choosiness, eating to excess, greedily gulping food, and eating excessively expensive food. This shows that good table manners have a deeper value than is commonly realized.
Gluttony is in itself a venial sin. It can become mortal if it causes serious danger to health or grave scandal.
Footnotes:
1. Cf. CCC, 1808, 1837, 2848.
2. Cf. Ibid., 2473–2474; ST, II-II, q. 124, a. 5.
3. Cf. ST, II-II, q. 129, a. 3 ad 3; ad 5; a. 4 ad 2.
4. Cf. Ibid., II-II, q. 134, a. 3.
5. Cf. Ibid., II-II, q. 136, a. 4 ad 2.
6. Cf. Ibid., II-II, q. 137, a. 3.
7. Cf. CCC, 1809, 2514–2533.
8. Cf. ST, II-II, q. 141, a. 4.
9. Cf. Ibid., II-II, q. 141, a. 4 ad 4; CCC, 2521–2524.
10. Cf. ST, II-II, q. 145, a. 4.
11. Cf. Ibid., II-II, q. 161, a. 4 ad 3.
12. Cf. Ibid., II-II, q. 160, a. 2.
13. Cf. Ibid., II-II, q. 35, a. 1 ad 3.
14. Cf. Ibid., III, q. 49, a. 6; q. 53, a. 1; q. 54, a. 2.
15. St. Josemaría Escrivá, Friends of God, 100.
16. Ibid., 101.
17. Cf. ST, II-II, q. 143.
18. Cf. CCC, 2337–2391.
19. Cf. St. Josemaría Escrivá, Christ is Passing By, 25.
20. Cf. Ibid., 5; Friends of God, 177, 182.
21. St. Josemaría Escrivá, The Way, 123.
22. St. Josemaría Escrivá, Christ is Passing By, 25.
23. St. Josemaría Escrivá, Friends of God, 182.
24. Ibid., 175.
25. St. Josemaría Escrivá, The Way, 124.
26. St. Josemaría Escrivá, Friends of God, 185.
27. Ibid., 186.
28. Cf. CCC, 2517–2533.
29. Cf. St. Josemaría Escrivá, Friends of God, 185.
30. Ibid., 182.
31. Cf. Ibid., 178.
32. St. Josemaría Escrivá, Christ is Passing By, 25.
33. Cf. CCC, 1618–1620.
34. Cf. DS 1810; PO, 16.
35. Cf. CCC, 2351–2356.
36. Cf. ST, II-II, q. 154, a. 4.
37. Cf. CCC, 2388.
38. Cf. Ibid., 2380–2386.
39. Cf. Ibid., 2352.
40. Cf. Ibid., 2357–2359.
41. Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, Decl. Persona Humana, 9; cf. CCC, 2352.
42. Cf. CCC, 2357–2359.
43. Cf. Ibid., 2290.
44. Cf. Ibid., 2291.
45. Ibid., 2291.
46. Cf. Ibid., 1438, 2043; CIC, 1249–53.
47. Cf. ST, II-II, q. 148, a. 1.