24. Intermediate Societies and Associations
27. Intermediate Societies
27a) Legitimate and Useful Societies
Intermediate societies are legitimate and useful. The state must respect them. Membership in the natural societies that are intermediate between the individual and the state, and the constitution of free associations for the pursuit of legitimate purposes are both natural rights. Therefore, the state is bound to respect these rights.
Private societies, then, although they exist within the political body, and are severally part of the commonwealth, cannot nevertheless be absolutely, as such, prohibited by public authority. For, to enter into a “society” of this kind is the natural right of man; and the State has for its office to protect natural rights, not to destroy them; and, if it forbid its citizens to form associations, it contradicts the very principle of its own existence, for both they and it exist in virtue of the like principle, namely, the natural tendency of man to dwell in society.1
Besides, the constitution and strengthening of these intermediate organizations is very advantageous for society, and could even be indispensable. Without them, individuals would lack support for the attainment of their just aspirations:
As We insisted in Our encyclical Mater et Magistra, the founding of a great many such intermediate groups or societies for the pursuit of aims that the lone individual cannot achieve efficiently, is a matter of great urgency. Such groups and societies must be considered absolutely essential for the safeguarding of man’s personal freedom and dignity, while leaving intact a sense of responsibility.2
27b) Organizations Recognized by the Magisterium
(1) Local governments
The city council is one of the many natural institutions explicitly recognized by the Magisterium of the Church:
And, in truth, whatever in the State is of chief avail for the common welfare; whatever has been usefully established to curb the license of rulers who are opposed to the interests of the people, or to keep in check the leading authorities from unwarrantably interfering in municipal or family affairs; whatever tends to uphold the honor, manhood, and equal rights of individual citizens—of all these things, as the monuments of past ages bear witness, the Catholic Church has always been the originator, the promoter, or the guardian.3
(2) Ethnic minorities
In some cases, ethnic minorities are not fully integrated with the people among whom they live. Groups that are forced to migrate for labor-related reasons may be in a similar condition. These situations should not be exploited to maintain discriminatory practices, which would be blatantly unjust if they affect fundamental rights that are common to all.
In the field of a new order founded on moral principles, there is no place for open nor camouflaged oppression of the cultural and linguistic peculiarities of national minorities, for hindering or curtailing their economic capacity, for limiting or abolishing their natural fecundity. The more conscientiously the competent authorities of the State respect the rights of the minority, the more surely and effectively can it demand of its members that they carry out loyally the civic duties, which are shared with other citizens.4
(3) Other natural associations
The right of association extends to the different fields of human activity. “Governments should take care not to put obstacles in the way of family, cultural or social groups, or of organizations and intermediate institutions, nor to hinder their lawful and constructive activity; rather, they should eagerly seek to promote such orderly activity.”5
The right of association also applies to the field of labor, with the objective of “defending the vital interests of those employed in the various professions.”6 This is the role of labor or trade unions, which protect the labor rights of farmers, industrial workers, employers, and intellectuals.
28. Associations
28a) The Right of Association
The right of association is based on the social nature of man, which moves him to undertake projects in cooperation with other men and in an organized way.7 Isolated, a man would hardly be able to supply his basic needs. Associations are therefore useful in the different sectors of life for the effective protection of the rights and liberties of their members.8 This primary right of association is one of the pillars of the principle of subsidiarity.9
28b) Private Associations
(1) Advisability
Private associations provide a forum for the collective voice of those who share the same interests and goals. They make a specific contribution to the common good. Their presence—not only in the field of labor, but in all aspects of public life—must be properly fostered through a climate of favorable public opinion.10 This is clearly seen in the case of labor associations:
In modern times we have seen an extensive increase in the number of workers’ associations, and their general recognition in the juridical codes of single States and on the international level. Members are no longer recruited in order to agitate, but rather to co-operate, principally by the method of collective bargaining. But it is worthwhile stressing here how timely and imperative it is that workers be given the opportunity to exert their influence throughout the State, and not just within the limits of their own spheres of employment.11
(2) Internal autonomy
Private associations must enjoy the autonomy in their activity and management that is necessary to achieve a greater physical and spiritual benefit for their members. Their activities and operations should not be regulated from the outside. “All such societies, being free to exist, have the further right to adopt such rules and organization as may best conduce to the attainment of their respective objects.”12
An internal unity of purpose is thus needed. Besides, the good of the souls must be given top priority, so that the pursuit of material benefits will take the place that is assigned by Christ: “But seek first his kingdom and his righteousness, and all these things shall be yours as well” (Mt 6:33).
(3) Role of private associations
Private associations are an effective channel of participation in the achievement of the common good in all fields of human activity.13 For this, it is necessary that the members, in their mutual relations, be considered responsible persons who are endowed with initiative.14 It will then be evident that the management of the enterprise in question is a human affair, conducted by humans and based on human relations, and not just a purely impersonal application of economic laws, with people as mere executors. Referring specifically to labor associations, John Paul II has declared:
For this reason it is very important that all protagonists of economic life should have the real possibility of taking part freely and actively in the elaboration and control of decisions that concern them at all levels. Pope Leo XIII in Rerum Novarum had already clearly affirmed the right of the workers to unite in free associations for the purpose of making their voice heard, defending their interests and contributing in a responsible way to the common good, the requirements and the discipline of which are imposed on everyone in the sphere of laws and contracts that can always be perfected.15
28c) Political Associations
(1) Legitimate and useful
Decisions that affect public life must not be taken without the participation of the people concerned. The Church urges the faithful to participate, together with their fellow men, in the temporal progress of their city and country. They must claim and exercise their rights, which are exactly the same as those of any other citizen. And, within their possibilities, they must actively seek to have moral and Christian values inspire the legislation and life of their communities. This participation in political life and organization, in their capacity as believers, is an obligation for Christians.16
And yet, if they are to imbue civilization with right ideals and Christian principles, it is not enough for Our sons to be illumined by the heavenly light of faith and to be fired with enthusiasm for a cause; they must involve themselves in the work of these institutions, and strive to influence them effectively from within.17
(2) The Church and political parties
Pluralism in temporal activity, notably politics, is perfectly lawful. It is also permissible to propose different solutions to all the questions left by God to the free decisions of men. The Church will not make value judgments on the party system in force in modern democracies—i.e., whether it is better or worse than other present or historical systems.
It is useless to expect that the Church should favor one tendency rather than another among the different systems, which vary with the times and depend on them. Within the scope of the universal value of the divine law, whose authority extends not only to individuals but also to peoples, there is plenty of room and freedom of movement for the most varied forms of political systems. At the same time, the practical adherence to one political system or another depends, to a very large extent and sometimes decisively so, on circumstances and causes that, considered in themselves, are foreign to the aim and activity of the Church.18
However, the Church does demand that the activity of the parties be not directed by partisan interests. On the contrary, only the safeguarding of the common good justifies the different options. Their diversity appears in the field of the concrete solutions offered, which will depend on contingent, changeable historical circumstances. If one of these solutions were founded on an ideology that does not respect the true nature of the common good, it would no longer be a valid option. “Political parties, for their part, must support whatever in their opinion is conducive to the common good, but must never put their own interests before the common good.”19
(3) The purpose of political associations
The purpose of political associations is the common good. It must be stressed, though, that it is highly advisable to promote all forms of civic association, which reflect the diverse expressions of the common good. This approach will preempt the totalitarian temptations of political parties. Such associations will help restore and spread, in a practical way, the fundamental convictions about the nature and requirements of the civic common good, which the political power must respect and serve.
It is not for the State or even for political parties, which would be closed unto themselves, to try to impose an ideology by means that would lead to a dictatorship over minds, the worst kind of all. It is for cultural and religious groupings, in the freedom of acceptance that they presume, to develop in the social body, disinterestedly and in their own ways, those ultimate convictions on the nature, origin and end of man and society.20
(4) Political parties and labor unions
The concern of the political parties for the common good is shown in their meeting the legitimate demands of the different social groups. This must be done without curtailing their spontaneity—that is, without conditioning the decisions of these groups to party programs or directives. John Paul II stresses the respective ends of political parties and labor unions, partly different—general versus particular—and partly common—the dignity of the person and the common good.
Unions do not have the character of political parties struggling for power; they should not be subjected to the decision of political parties or have too close links with them. In fact, in such a situation they easily lose contact with their specific role, which is to secure the just rights of workers within the framework of the common good of the whole of society; instead they become an instrument used for other purposes.21
Footnotes:
1. Leo XIII, Enc. Rerum Novarum, 35; cf. CCC, 1882–1883.
2. John XXIII, Enc. Pacem in Terris, 24.
3. Leo XIII, Enc. Immortale Dei, 50.
4. Pius XII, Christmas Address, 1941.
5. GS, 75; cf. Pius XI, Enc. Quadragesimo Anno, 87; Enc. Divini Redemptoris, 68.
6. John Paul II, Enc. Laborem Exercens, 20.
7. Cf. DH, 4.
8. Cf. John XXIII, Enc. Pacem in Terris, 24.
9. Cf. Pius XI, Enc. Quadragesimo Anno, 79.
10. Cf. John XXIII, Enc. Pacem in Terris, 24.
11. John XXIII, Enc. Mater et Magistra, 97.
12. Leo XIII, Enc. Rerum Novarum, 39.
13. Cf. GS, 75.
14. Cf. John XXIII, Enc. Mater et Magistra, 65.
15. John Paul II, Address to Workers at Morumbi Stadium, Sao Paulo, Brazil, July 3, 1980.
16. Cf. Paul VI, Ap. Letter Octogesima Adveniens, 24; CCC, 1913–1917.
17. John XXIII, Enc. Pacem in Terris, 147.
18. Pius XII, Christmas Radio Message, 1940; cf. CCC, 2245.
19. GS, 75.
20. Paul VI, Ap. Letter Octogesima Adveniens, 25.
21. John Paul II, Enc. Laborem Exercens, 20; cf. CCC, 2430.
27a) Legitimate and Useful Societies
Intermediate societies are legitimate and useful. The state must respect them. Membership in the natural societies that are intermediate between the individual and the state, and the constitution of free associations for the pursuit of legitimate purposes are both natural rights. Therefore, the state is bound to respect these rights.
Private societies, then, although they exist within the political body, and are severally part of the commonwealth, cannot nevertheless be absolutely, as such, prohibited by public authority. For, to enter into a “society” of this kind is the natural right of man; and the State has for its office to protect natural rights, not to destroy them; and, if it forbid its citizens to form associations, it contradicts the very principle of its own existence, for both they and it exist in virtue of the like principle, namely, the natural tendency of man to dwell in society.1
Besides, the constitution and strengthening of these intermediate organizations is very advantageous for society, and could even be indispensable. Without them, individuals would lack support for the attainment of their just aspirations:
As We insisted in Our encyclical Mater et Magistra, the founding of a great many such intermediate groups or societies for the pursuit of aims that the lone individual cannot achieve efficiently, is a matter of great urgency. Such groups and societies must be considered absolutely essential for the safeguarding of man’s personal freedom and dignity, while leaving intact a sense of responsibility.2
27b) Organizations Recognized by the Magisterium
(1) Local governments
The city council is one of the many natural institutions explicitly recognized by the Magisterium of the Church:
And, in truth, whatever in the State is of chief avail for the common welfare; whatever has been usefully established to curb the license of rulers who are opposed to the interests of the people, or to keep in check the leading authorities from unwarrantably interfering in municipal or family affairs; whatever tends to uphold the honor, manhood, and equal rights of individual citizens—of all these things, as the monuments of past ages bear witness, the Catholic Church has always been the originator, the promoter, or the guardian.3
(2) Ethnic minorities
In some cases, ethnic minorities are not fully integrated with the people among whom they live. Groups that are forced to migrate for labor-related reasons may be in a similar condition. These situations should not be exploited to maintain discriminatory practices, which would be blatantly unjust if they affect fundamental rights that are common to all.
In the field of a new order founded on moral principles, there is no place for open nor camouflaged oppression of the cultural and linguistic peculiarities of national minorities, for hindering or curtailing their economic capacity, for limiting or abolishing their natural fecundity. The more conscientiously the competent authorities of the State respect the rights of the minority, the more surely and effectively can it demand of its members that they carry out loyally the civic duties, which are shared with other citizens.4
(3) Other natural associations
The right of association extends to the different fields of human activity. “Governments should take care not to put obstacles in the way of family, cultural or social groups, or of organizations and intermediate institutions, nor to hinder their lawful and constructive activity; rather, they should eagerly seek to promote such orderly activity.”5
The right of association also applies to the field of labor, with the objective of “defending the vital interests of those employed in the various professions.”6 This is the role of labor or trade unions, which protect the labor rights of farmers, industrial workers, employers, and intellectuals.
28. Associations
28a) The Right of Association
The right of association is based on the social nature of man, which moves him to undertake projects in cooperation with other men and in an organized way.7 Isolated, a man would hardly be able to supply his basic needs. Associations are therefore useful in the different sectors of life for the effective protection of the rights and liberties of their members.8 This primary right of association is one of the pillars of the principle of subsidiarity.9
28b) Private Associations
(1) Advisability
Private associations provide a forum for the collective voice of those who share the same interests and goals. They make a specific contribution to the common good. Their presence—not only in the field of labor, but in all aspects of public life—must be properly fostered through a climate of favorable public opinion.10 This is clearly seen in the case of labor associations:
In modern times we have seen an extensive increase in the number of workers’ associations, and their general recognition in the juridical codes of single States and on the international level. Members are no longer recruited in order to agitate, but rather to co-operate, principally by the method of collective bargaining. But it is worthwhile stressing here how timely and imperative it is that workers be given the opportunity to exert their influence throughout the State, and not just within the limits of their own spheres of employment.11
(2) Internal autonomy
Private associations must enjoy the autonomy in their activity and management that is necessary to achieve a greater physical and spiritual benefit for their members. Their activities and operations should not be regulated from the outside. “All such societies, being free to exist, have the further right to adopt such rules and organization as may best conduce to the attainment of their respective objects.”12
An internal unity of purpose is thus needed. Besides, the good of the souls must be given top priority, so that the pursuit of material benefits will take the place that is assigned by Christ: “But seek first his kingdom and his righteousness, and all these things shall be yours as well” (Mt 6:33).
(3) Role of private associations
Private associations are an effective channel of participation in the achievement of the common good in all fields of human activity.13 For this, it is necessary that the members, in their mutual relations, be considered responsible persons who are endowed with initiative.14 It will then be evident that the management of the enterprise in question is a human affair, conducted by humans and based on human relations, and not just a purely impersonal application of economic laws, with people as mere executors. Referring specifically to labor associations, John Paul II has declared:
For this reason it is very important that all protagonists of economic life should have the real possibility of taking part freely and actively in the elaboration and control of decisions that concern them at all levels. Pope Leo XIII in Rerum Novarum had already clearly affirmed the right of the workers to unite in free associations for the purpose of making their voice heard, defending their interests and contributing in a responsible way to the common good, the requirements and the discipline of which are imposed on everyone in the sphere of laws and contracts that can always be perfected.15
28c) Political Associations
(1) Legitimate and useful
Decisions that affect public life must not be taken without the participation of the people concerned. The Church urges the faithful to participate, together with their fellow men, in the temporal progress of their city and country. They must claim and exercise their rights, which are exactly the same as those of any other citizen. And, within their possibilities, they must actively seek to have moral and Christian values inspire the legislation and life of their communities. This participation in political life and organization, in their capacity as believers, is an obligation for Christians.16
And yet, if they are to imbue civilization with right ideals and Christian principles, it is not enough for Our sons to be illumined by the heavenly light of faith and to be fired with enthusiasm for a cause; they must involve themselves in the work of these institutions, and strive to influence them effectively from within.17
(2) The Church and political parties
Pluralism in temporal activity, notably politics, is perfectly lawful. It is also permissible to propose different solutions to all the questions left by God to the free decisions of men. The Church will not make value judgments on the party system in force in modern democracies—i.e., whether it is better or worse than other present or historical systems.
It is useless to expect that the Church should favor one tendency rather than another among the different systems, which vary with the times and depend on them. Within the scope of the universal value of the divine law, whose authority extends not only to individuals but also to peoples, there is plenty of room and freedom of movement for the most varied forms of political systems. At the same time, the practical adherence to one political system or another depends, to a very large extent and sometimes decisively so, on circumstances and causes that, considered in themselves, are foreign to the aim and activity of the Church.18
However, the Church does demand that the activity of the parties be not directed by partisan interests. On the contrary, only the safeguarding of the common good justifies the different options. Their diversity appears in the field of the concrete solutions offered, which will depend on contingent, changeable historical circumstances. If one of these solutions were founded on an ideology that does not respect the true nature of the common good, it would no longer be a valid option. “Political parties, for their part, must support whatever in their opinion is conducive to the common good, but must never put their own interests before the common good.”19
(3) The purpose of political associations
The purpose of political associations is the common good. It must be stressed, though, that it is highly advisable to promote all forms of civic association, which reflect the diverse expressions of the common good. This approach will preempt the totalitarian temptations of political parties. Such associations will help restore and spread, in a practical way, the fundamental convictions about the nature and requirements of the civic common good, which the political power must respect and serve.
It is not for the State or even for political parties, which would be closed unto themselves, to try to impose an ideology by means that would lead to a dictatorship over minds, the worst kind of all. It is for cultural and religious groupings, in the freedom of acceptance that they presume, to develop in the social body, disinterestedly and in their own ways, those ultimate convictions on the nature, origin and end of man and society.20
(4) Political parties and labor unions
The concern of the political parties for the common good is shown in their meeting the legitimate demands of the different social groups. This must be done without curtailing their spontaneity—that is, without conditioning the decisions of these groups to party programs or directives. John Paul II stresses the respective ends of political parties and labor unions, partly different—general versus particular—and partly common—the dignity of the person and the common good.
Unions do not have the character of political parties struggling for power; they should not be subjected to the decision of political parties or have too close links with them. In fact, in such a situation they easily lose contact with their specific role, which is to secure the just rights of workers within the framework of the common good of the whole of society; instead they become an instrument used for other purposes.21
Footnotes:
1. Leo XIII, Enc. Rerum Novarum, 35; cf. CCC, 1882–1883.
2. John XXIII, Enc. Pacem in Terris, 24.
3. Leo XIII, Enc. Immortale Dei, 50.
4. Pius XII, Christmas Address, 1941.
5. GS, 75; cf. Pius XI, Enc. Quadragesimo Anno, 87; Enc. Divini Redemptoris, 68.
6. John Paul II, Enc. Laborem Exercens, 20.
7. Cf. DH, 4.
8. Cf. John XXIII, Enc. Pacem in Terris, 24.
9. Cf. Pius XI, Enc. Quadragesimo Anno, 79.
10. Cf. John XXIII, Enc. Pacem in Terris, 24.
11. John XXIII, Enc. Mater et Magistra, 97.
12. Leo XIII, Enc. Rerum Novarum, 39.
13. Cf. GS, 75.
14. Cf. John XXIII, Enc. Mater et Magistra, 65.
15. John Paul II, Address to Workers at Morumbi Stadium, Sao Paulo, Brazil, July 3, 1980.
16. Cf. Paul VI, Ap. Letter Octogesima Adveniens, 24; CCC, 1913–1917.
17. John XXIII, Enc. Pacem in Terris, 147.
18. Pius XII, Christmas Radio Message, 1940; cf. CCC, 2245.
19. GS, 75.
20. Paul VI, Ap. Letter Octogesima Adveniens, 25.
21. John Paul II, Enc. Laborem Exercens, 20; cf. CCC, 2430.