60. The Sacraments in General
1. Introduction
The sacraments are the seven great means that God has given the Church so that her members may grow in the life of grace.1 The first five correspond to the different needs of the Christian’s spiritual life: birth, growth, nutrition, cure in sickness, and preparation for the soul’s union with God. The other two correspond to the needs of Christian society: the Christian priesthood and the Christian family.
Following this division, we will study:
· the sacraments of Christian initiation: Baptism, Confirmation, and Holy Eucharist,
· the sacraments of healing: Penance and Anointing of the Sick,
· the sacraments for the needs of the community: Holy Orders and Matrimony.2
In this analysis of the sacraments, we will study both the doctrine of faith (dogma) and the practical norms regulating their administration and reception (morals). The special nature of the Sacrament of Marriage warrants the inclusion of a study of the properties and obligations of natural marriage, which is a traditional approach.
As theologians examined the doctrine of faith of each of the sacraments, some properties common to all were identified. This led to the term sacrament being used exclusively to refer to these seven rites. This systematic device was, fundamentally, the work of the Scholastic movement, which reached its zenith in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries.
The fundamental documents of the Magisterium of the Church on the seven sacraments are the following:
· The Decree for the Armenians. In 1439, the Ecumenical Council of Florence composed this document to the Armenians so that they could officially know the faith of the Roman Church. Among other things, the decree contains an “Instruction on the Sacraments,” which closely follows a work of St. Thomas Aquinas on the same topic.
· The documents of the Council of Trent. In order to correct the Protestant errors, the Council had to expound all the doctrine about the sacraments in detail. Between 1547 and 1563, eight council sessions were devoted to this subject.
2. The Essence of the Sacraments
A sacrament is an external or sensible sign, instituted by Christ, that causes the grace it signifies.3 We will study the elements of this definition in detail:
· It is sensible. It is known through the external senses. A merely internal perception, such as an image produced by the imagination, would not be a sacrament.
· It is a sign. It is something that represents a reality (the signified thing) distinct from the sign itself. The sign is an intermediary between the signified thing and the subject who knows it. Some signs, like the letters of the alphabet, are based solely on convention. The sacramental sign, however, bears a natural resemblance to the signified reality. Thus, the washing or anointing of the body signifies the cleansing or comforting of the soul, respectively.
· It is instituted by Christ. Only God can give grace, and, therefore, only he can decide what means or channels he will use to communicate it to us.
· It causes the grace it signifies. The sacraments communicate both sanctifying grace and the specific grace of each sacrament.
3. The Sacraments are Sensible and Material Signs
The sacraments are sensible and material signs (words and actions), accessible to mankind. They really bestow the grace that they signify; they do this through the action of Christ and the power of the Holy Spirit.4
God our Lord is infinite; his love is inexhaustible; his clemency and tenderness toward us are limitless. He grants us his grace in many other ways, but he has expressly and freely established, as only he can do, seven effective signs to enable men to share in the merits of the redemption in a stable, simple and accessible way.5
We may wonder why God wanted to use material means to give us his grace. It may well be for pedagogical reasons, since in our present corporeal condition, material things help us grasp what is spiritual. In a certain way, we come to understand supernatural realities through our senses. The humanity of Christ, words and actions, songs and music, sacred images, and other sacred objects have a similar pedagogical function.
We could go even further than the pedagogical aspect. “Authentic Christianity, which professes the resurrection of all flesh, has always quite logically opposed dis-incarnation, without fear of being judged materialistic. We can, therefore, rightfully speak of a Christian materialism, which is boldly opposed to those materialisms that are blind to the spirit.”6
What are the sacraments, which early Christians described as the footprints of the Incarnate Word, if not the clearest manifestation of this way that God has chosen in order to sanctify us and to lead us to heaven? Don’t you see that each sacrament is the love of God, with all its creative and redemptive power, giving itself to us by way of material means?7
4. Errors Regarding the Sacraments
The doctrine about the sacraments was a main source of error in the teachings of the sixteenth-century Protestant reformers. They denied the existence of some sacraments and heretically misinterpreted the essence of the rest.
In general, they retained only the Sacraments of Baptism and Holy Eucharist. As to the latter, only Luther accepted the Real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist. Still, he erroneously claimed that the substance of bread and wine were present alongside the body and blood of our Lord (a doctrine known as consubstantiation).
In various ways, Protestant groups denied that the sacraments really cause grace. Some thought that the sacraments would only awaken faith—the reception of grace being a consequence. Others claimed that the sacraments were only signs of having already received grace, of membership in the Church and union with it. This is not surprising, since they held an erroneous doctrine on grace, understanding it as the mere non-imputation of sin.
5. The Sacraments in the Old Testament
“The Church of Christ was prepared in marvelous fashion in the history of the people of Israel and in the Old Alliance.”8 Through the action of the Holy Spirit, certain sacramental rites in the Old Law prefigured the sacraments of the New Law. These rites were circumcision (which prefigured Baptism),9 the paschal lamb and the bread of the presence (which prefigured the Eucharist [cf. 1 Cor 5:7]), the various purification and expiation rites (which prefigured Penance), and the consecration of Levites and priests (which prefigured the Sacrament of Holy Orders).10
These rites, however, did not confer sanctifying grace as the seven sacraments do. They merely prepared the soul for the reception of grace.11 This essential difference clearly illustrates the contrast between that time (when redemption had only been promised) and the present time (when it has already been achieved by Christ).12
6. The Institution of the Sacraments by Christ
God is the principal author of all the sacraments. Only God has the power to give the capacity to confer supernatural grace to a sensible and material sign.
He established the sacraments through the humanity of Christ. The mysteries of the life of Christ brought salvation to mankind. What was visible in our Savior has been passed to his mysteries (sacraments). The sacraments are like “forces coming” from the body of Christ (cf. Lk 5:17; 6:19; 8:46). We can say, then, that Christ is:
· the principal author of the sacraments through his divinity,
· the ministerial or instrumental author through his humanity.
All of the sacraments were instituted by Christ. This is affirmed in the documents of the Council of Trent, though not in those exact words.13 This council defined that the Church cannot change the substance of the sacraments.14 If the Church cannot change them, she certainly could not have had the authority to establish them in the beginning (as some medieval authors erroneously held).
Christ so specifically determined the matter and form of the sacraments that it is not licit to substantially change them. Christ could have determined each of the minor details of the administration of the sacraments (individual determination), but all authors agree that he did not: These details have changed with time and differ with the rites of the Catholic Church.
Christ could have determined the nature of each sacrament in a general way (generic determination), for example, by telling his apostles, “I want you to establish a rite signifying the cleansing of the soul from sin. I, with my power, will give that rite the capacity actually to forgive sin. It is up to you to decide the matter and form of the rite.” If that were the case, Christ would still be the author of the sacraments, but the Church would have power over their matter and form. The Council of Trent, however, defines that this was not so.15
Therefore, we must hold that Christ specifically determined the matter and form of each sacrament (specific determination), leaving the accidental aspects open to changes. An example of such a change is the above-mentioned differences between the Latin Rite and the other rites of the Catholic Church.
7. The Sacraments of the Church
The Holy Spirit leads the Church “into all the truth” (Jn 16:13); under his influence, the Church recognized the treasure received from Christ (the sacraments) and determined their “dispensation” (cf. Mt 13:52; 1 Cor 4:1).
The sacraments belong to the Church. They exist:
· through the Church, because she is the instrument of Christ’s action; he acts through her by virtue of the mission of the Holy Spirit, and
· for the Church, because “the sacraments constitute the Church.”16
United to Christ, her head, the Church celebrates the sacraments as a priestly community structured by the baptismal priesthood of all the faithful and the ministerial priesthood.
The Holy Spirit prepares the faithful for the reception of the sacraments through the word of God and through faith. The faith of a well-disposed heart receives the word of God. The sacraments strengthen and express that faith.17
8. Matter and Form of the Sacramental Sign
God speaks to people through actions and words—closely linked—that shed light on each other.18 The sacramental sign is composed of two elements, called matter and form by way of analogy with the metaphysical composition of material beings.
The matter is the material and sensible action or gesture; the form is the accompanying words that declare the special meaning of that external action or gesture. For example, to wash with water is the matter of Baptism, and its form is the words “I baptize you in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit.” To baptize precisely means “to wash.”
From the above-mentioned matter, which is specifically called proximate matter, we can distinguish remote matter, which is the basic material element used in the action or gesture. By analogy, any equivalent element is called remote matter, even if it is not material. In the case of Baptism, the remote matter is natural water.
This analysis is especially useful in determining what is required in each case for a sacramental sign—therefore a sacrament—to exist.
Matter and form must be united to constitute a sacramental sign. The type of union needed varies with the sacrament, as we will see when we study them individually. In the Eucharist, for example, the priest must say the words of the consecration in the actual and close presence of the bread and wine. In Holy Orders, however, there is a certain interval between the laying of the hands (matter) and the words of the consecration (form). Still, both are part of the same rite.
9. The Matter and Form of the Sacraments are Immutable
Since the sacramental sign has been instituted by Christ, it is evident that only Christ can change it, and he does not. The Church received the command to keep and administer the sacraments. She has also received the power to adapt the administrative details to human needs, provided the substance is not changed, as the Council of Trent recalled.19
We have, then, to clarify the distinction between an accidental and a substantial change:
9a) Changes in the Remote Matter
· There is a substantial change when it is generally recognized that the material element has changed. This is shown by a change in name, usage, or signification. For example, when a strong dye is added to water, there is more pure water there than in, say, seawater. However, it is no longer water, but ink, and its use is no longer called washing. Therefore, it cannot be used for Baptism.
· There is an accidental change when people generally recognize that the matter is still the same. In the case of Baptism, it is indifferent whether the water comes from a well or from the tap, or is hot or cold.
9b) Changes in the Form
· There is a substantial change when the words no longer manifest the meaning of the action. For example, it would be invalid to say “I baptize you in the name of the Sts. Peter and Paul …”
· There is an accidental change when the new words keep the same meaning, for example, “I do baptize you” instead of “I baptize you.”
All of this is especially useful when one has to judge about the validity of a sacrament or the lawfulness of administering it in a certain way. Thus, the following principles apply in the administration of the sacraments:
· Whoever introduces a substantial change in the matter or form of a sacrament renders it invalid. If they do so knowingly, they commit a very serious sin.
· Whoever introduces an accidental change does not render the sacrament invalid, but if it is done knowingly and without sufficient cause, that person commits a sin. The gravity of the sin depends on the extent of the change. This would be the case, for example, of a priest who, while giving absolution, feels “inspired” to add his own comments, or alter the order of the words, but kept the same essential meaning. He might say something like: “By virtue of my powers, I forgive all your mortal sins and all the venial sins you are sorry for, in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit; so that henceforth you may be a good child of God.” The Code of Canon Law specifies that “the liturgical books, approved by the competent authority, are to be faithfully followed in the celebration of the sacraments.”20
10. Doubtful Cases
Except in cases of grave spiritual need, the use of doubtful matter—of whose suitability for the sacrament one is not morally sure—is a mortal sin. One unnecessarily risks performing an invalid sacrament, thus, depriving the subject of the grace.
If there is any doubt about the capacity of a subject to receive a sacrament that cannot be resolved, the sacrament may be administered conditionally. In this way, the sacrament is not wasted, since if the condition is not met, there is no sacrament. For example, if one doubts whether the subject is validly baptized or not, the following formula should be used: “If you are not baptized, I baptize you …” If one doubts whether the subject is still alive, the Anointing of the Sick may be administered, but the form must be preceded by the words: “If you are alive.” In this way, both dangers are avoided: The sacrament is not wasted, nor is a person who is really in need (and who would otherwise suffer a great spiritual harm) deprived of the grace.
11. The Number of the Sacraments
The existence of the following sacraments is a dogma of faith: Baptism, Confirmation, Eucharist, Penance, Anointing of the Sick, Holy Orders, and Matrimony. The councils of Florence and Trent both defined this.21
Tradition—in both the Eastern and the Western sources—agrees with this enumeration. However, as we said before, the use of the expression “seven sacraments” started only at the beginning of the twelfth century, and the study of their common properties began even later. This is because the term sacrament had a wide range of meanings before then. It included many other rites and sacred ceremonies, such as blessings and consecrations of persons or things. Nevertheless, each of the seven sacraments was well known from the beginning, and their properties, which were likewise known and expounded, are what we understand the term sacrament to mean.
In the study of the sacraments, we could first study each of the rites that are now called sacraments, then infer their common properties and formulate a general doctrine of the sacraments. However, we will take that for granted and follow the usual reverse approach, which is easier and clearer.22
All the sacraments are ordained in a special manner to the Eucharist—the center of them all—in which not only grace but also the very Author of grace is given.23
12. Necessity of the Sacraments
The Church affirms that the sacraments are necessary for salvation for the believers of the New Covenant.24 Some sacraments are necessary for the Christian community (Holy Orders and Matrimony), while others are necessary for the individual (Baptism, Penance, Eucharist, Confirmation, and Extreme Unction—also called Anointing of the Sick).
Among the latter, two are necessary means, that is, without them (or at least, the desire of receiving them) there is no salvation. These are Baptism and, for those who have committed mortal sins after Baptism, Penance. Some authors hold that the Eucharist is also necessary for those who have reached the use of reason.
13. Sacraments of the Living and Sacraments of the Dead
The sacraments of the living are those that, in order to produce grace, require that the subject already enjoy the life of grace, that he be in the state of sanctifying grace (without any mortal sin).
The primary purpose of the sacraments of the dead is to transmit the life of grace to those deprived of it. Strictly speaking, these are Baptism and Penance, although the other sacraments can also have this effect in an accidental way, particularly the Anointing of the Sick.
14. Effects of the Sacraments
The sacraments produce supernatural grace.25 Three of them also produce character.26
It is a dogma of faith that the sacraments themselves communicate grace to all those who do not obstruct their action. The Council of Trent defined this dogma.27 Many testimonies of Scripture and Tradition support this definition (cf. Acts 2:38; 22:16; 1 Cor 6:11; Eph 5:26; 2 Tm 1:6; Ti 3:5; 1 Pt 3:21).
The Council of Trent’s definition emphasized that the sacraments communicate grace “by themselves” (ex opere operato, “by the very action that is realized”). This was meant to refute the error that the Protestants were spreading: that they produce grace ex opere operantis, “by the action of the minister or the subject.”
The sacraments are thought to cause grace through physical instrumental causality. This means that the sacraments have a real power of their own to produce grace. This differs from moral causality, in which the performance of the sacramental sign would immediately move God to grant his grace. In the second case, the physical causality of the sacraments is merely instrumental, that is, an instrument that God, supreme cause of all graces, wants to use just as a painter uses his brush.28
14a) Sanctifying Grace
The grace conferred by the sacraments is sanctifying grace: a free gift of God that produces a supernatural participation in the divine nature, thus making us children of God.
The sacraments of the dead communicate this grace by themselves for the first time (first grace). Occasionally, they may cause its increase, as in the case of a person in the state of grace who goes to Confession (second grace).
The sacraments of the living increase sanctifying grace by themselves, though occasionally they may also cause its first communication. This would be the case, for example, of a person in the state of sin who, sincerely thinking he is in the state of grace, receives a sacrament in good faith.
The amount of sanctifying grace that is received depends on the attitude and dispositions of the subject: attention, devotion, or desire to improve.29
14b) Sacramental Grace
Besides conferring or increasing sanctifying grace, each sacrament produces a specific type of grace called sacramental grace. This is one of the reasons why there are multiple sacraments. Sacramental grace can be described as the right to receive the actual graces needed to fulfill the obligations born of the sacrament or to better achieve its end. Actual grace is the specific supernatural help that is needed to perform a good action.30
Thus, the sacramental grace of Baptism, among other things, gives the help that is needed to lead a clean and sinless spiritual life. The grace of Confirmation strengthens us to face temptations and difficulties. The sacramental grace of the Eucharist nourishes and develops the spiritual life. The grace of the Anointing of the Sick, among other effects, comforts the soul at the moment of death. Holy Orders gives the right to receive help for the proper fulfillment of the duties that it imposes. Marriage gives the help that is needed to comply with the demands of married life.
14c) Revival of the Sacraments
As we have mentioned, the sacraments do not produce grace if there is an obstacle to receiving grace in the subject. This obstacle consists in the lack of the necessary dispositions—for example, lack of faith in the sacrament, or reception of a sacrament of the living while in the state of sin. One should note that obstructing the grace of God is a serious sin.
In some sacraments, the grace that is missed due to an obstacle can be recovered later, after the obstacle that was present during the reception of the sacrament has been removed. This is called the revival of the sacrament. The sacraments that are subject to revival are those that are received only once or only once while some specific conditions persist. Specifically, these are Baptism, Confirmation, Anointing of the Sick, Holy Orders, and Marriage. Holy Eucharist and Penance cannot be revived.
The necessary and sufficient condition for revival of a sacrament is the presence of the disposition that was lacking when the sacrament was invalidly received.
14d) The Character
Three of the sacraments—Baptism, Confirmation, and Holy Orders—confer a character. This is an indelible spiritual sign impressed on the soul. Hence, these three sacraments may be received only once.31
This idea of a sign or seal appears several times in the Scriptures (cf. 2 Cor 1:21–22; Eph 1:13–14; 4:30). St. Thomas compares the sacramental character to the ensign or badge of a soldier: He remains a soldier even when he is not at war.32 We could think of it as an indelible tattoo showing enlistment in an army.
However, the real nature of the character is not known with certainty. Theologians agree that the characters conferred by these three sacraments are different from each other, but theologians are not unanimous in the description of their respective specific properties.
The character is usually explained in terms of a progressive enrichment of the soul’s identification with Christ as priest. Thus, aside from grace producing a similarity with Christ according to his nature, these three sacraments produce, through the character, different stages or degrees of similarity with Christ according to his priestly functions.33
In effect, the character has the following effects for a Christian:
· The individual is distinguished from all others who do not have it.
· The individual is consecrated in a special manner for the worship of God.
· All of this is made possible through his special configuration with Christ the priest.
14e) Other Effects of the Sacraments
As a consequence of their principal effects, which are grace and character, the sacraments produce a general enrichment of Christian life and a greater unity among the faithful of the Church.34
The present Code of Canon Law points out that, as “actions of Christ and of the Church, they are signs and means by which faith is expressed and strengthened, worship is offered to God and our sanctification is brought about. Thus they contribute in the most effective manner to establishing, strengthening and manifesting ecclesiastical communion.”35 In the sacraments, the Church receives the dowry of her inheritance as the bride of Christ. She participates in eternal life, although still a pilgrim, waiting for the blessed hope—the glorious appearance of our God and Savior Jesus Christ (cf. Ti 2:13).36
15. Minister of the Sacraments
Christ is always the principal minister united to his body, the ecclesial community.
Not all the members of his Mystical Body, however, have the same function. God calls some to render a special service to the community: the ministers.
The minister needs special empowerment or consecration to administer the sacraments. He is consecrated through the Sacrament of Holy Orders, which enables him to act as representative of Christ, the Head. This consecration is needed to administer all the sacraments except Baptism and Marriage.
The minister is an icon, and representative, of Christ the Priest. For this reason, in administering the sacraments, he must fully conform to the intentions of Christ. Thus, a special power is needed to administer them—not any minister can administer all the sacraments. He must also intend to do what the Church does, and properly apply the form to the matter.
Only a validly consecrated man, or at least one lawfully chosen for this purpose by a legitimate authority, can administer the sacraments.37
The ordinary minister is the person who, by his office or position, has the responsibility of administering a certain sacrament. For example, the bishop is the ordinary minister of the Sacrament of Confirmation. The extraordinary minister can administer it in case of need, but, at times, a special delegation is also required. For example, the extraordinary minister of Confirmation is a priest who is duly delegated by the bishop.
There are also particular ministries, not consecrated through the Sacrament of Holy Orders, whose functions are determined by the liturgical traditions and pastoral needs. Among these are the acolytes, readers, commentators, and singers, all of whom perform a liturgical ministry.38
15a) The Holiness of the Minister
Neither the faith nor the state of grace of the minister is necessary for the valid administration of a sacrament. This was defined by the Council of Trent,39 confirming definitions of the Council of Constance,40 other particular councils,41 and decisions of previous popes.42 Several passages of Sacred Scripture (cf. 1 Cor 4:1; 1 Cor 3:5, 7; Mt 7:22) and testimony from Tradition support this view.
However, except in cases of pressing need, the lawful administration of a sacrament does require the minister to be in the state of grace. It is understood that a pressing need exists when a person needs the sacrament for his salvation: Baptism, Confession, or the Anointing of the Sick in danger of death, and some other cases we will see later.
15b) The Intention of the Minister
There are different types of intention:
· Actual intention is explicitly present here and now.
· Virtual intention is an actual intention that one had before, never retracted, and at present—though not renewed and perhaps not even noticed—continues to influence one’s actions. It is, thus, called virtual because it continues to give its virtus, its “force,” to the action. For example, a person who wants to pay several bills keeps the virtual intention of paying even if he gets distracted and thinks of other things while signing the checks. If he did not intend to pay, he would not sign them. A priest who has to say Mass and puts on the vestments has the virtual intention of celebrating Mass, even though he may not be explicitly thinking that he wants to celebrate the holy sacrifice. The priest who sits in the confessional and, after hearing the penitent, gives absolution has the virtual intention of administering penance, even if he is not explicitly thinking that he wants to forgive sins.
· Habitual intention is an actual intention that one had before and never retracted, but at present does not influence one’s actions. This would be the case of a student who initially wants to get good grades, but later forgets and becomes lazy, or the person who wants to reach sanctity, but later disregards the exercises of piety.
· Interpretative intention is the intention that one presumes that a person would have if that person were conscious of the real situation, even though he never had (and does not now have) that intention. This would be the case of a validly baptized person who is brought up in heresy and persists in it in good faith. If he falls into a coma, one may presume that, were he to know his true situation, he would ask for sacramental absolution and the Anointing of the Sick. On these grounds, the sacraments could be administered.
All of this can be summarized as follows:
· Actual intention is present, influences the action, and the agent is aware of it.
· Virtual intention is present, influences the action, but the agent is not aware of it.
· Habitual intention was present in the past as actual but does not currently affect the necessary actions, which are left undone.
· Interpretative intention was never present, is not present now, and does not affect the agent, who never thought about it. However, as its definition shows, it is not unreal either.
After this clarification, we can establish the following principles:
· For the administration of the sacraments, the minister must have actual or at least virtual intention, since the actions must be properly and fully human.
· For the valid reception of the sacraments, it is usually enough to have habitual intention or, in case of pressing necessity, at least interpretative intention.
Concerning the object of the intention, the minister must intend to do what the Church does through the sacraments. It is not necessary to intend what the Church intends, but only what she actually does, even if what she does is not known explicitly. For example, in an extreme case, a Muslim midwife may baptize a child out of sympathy for the Christian mother who died in the delivery, wanting to do “what Christians do.” If the matter and form are properly used, the Baptism is valid. In practice, however, it would be repeated with a conditional clause.
15c) The Attention of the Minister
For valid administration of the sacraments, it is enough for the minister to have external attention, which is the absence of any other simultaneous action that would make interior attention impossible.
For lawful administration, it is further required to have internal attention, which is the application of the mind to the actions at hand, that is, the absence of voluntary distractions.
15d) The Obligation of Administering the Sacraments
“Sacred ministers may not deny the sacraments to those who opportunely ask for them, are properly disposed and are not prohibited by law from receiving them.”43 The Code of Canon Law states the right of the faithful to receive the sacraments, which was explicitly mentioned in a document of the Second Vatican Council.44
Those entrusted by office with the care of souls (like the parish priests) are obligated by justice to administer the sacraments to their subjects. In cases of extreme need, they must even risk their lives to fulfill that obligation.
For other ministers, it is an obligation of charity. It is a grave obligation if the denial of the sacrament could result in grave scandal or great spiritual harm. This would be the case of a priest called in the middle of the night to assist a dying person because, although he is not the parish priest, he lives nearby.
In case of a pressing need, a minister who is not in charge of that soul is also obliged to administer the sacraments, even if it is a great inconvenience to him. However, in cases of ordinary or light need, the obligation is not that strict.
15e) The Obligation to Deny the Sacraments
The obligation to deny the sacraments can be summarized in the following principles:
· It is never lawful to administer a sacrament to a subject who is incapable of receiving it such that the sacrament is clearly wasted. For example, it is never lawful to confirm or give Communion to an unbaptized person, to give the Anointing of the Sick to somebody who has been clearly dead for many hours, or to give absolution when there is certainly no repentance.
· It is not lawful to administer a sacrament to a subject who is unworthy, except for a very serious reason. This would be irreverence toward a sacred thing; the minister would be unfaithful to the mission received from Christ, and greater harm would be caused to the subject (cf. Mt 7:6).
Those unworthy of receiving the sacraments are: excommunicates until they are absolved; heretics until they abandon their heresy and are reconciled; public sinners until they repent, give public satisfaction, and go to Confession; and—for the sacraments of the living—those in mortal sin.
The very serious reason mentioned above exists when:
o the sacramental seal of confession would be violated. This may happen, for example, when a priest denies Communion to a person whom he had previously denied the absolution;
o the person asking for the sacrament would suffer a very serious infamy if it is denied. For example, a priest who denies Communion to someone whom he knows had committed adultery and has not yet gone to Confession would cause the person to suffer infamy;
o the faithful would suffer scandal. When observing the refusal to administer a sacrament to an unworthy person and not knowing the cause of the refusal, the faithful as a whole may be alarmed and refrain from the sacraments for fear of being publicly rejected.
For practical purposes, two rules could be followed:
i) The sacraments (except Marriage, in which the priest is only a witness) should be denied to public sinners who are not known to have repented, and to private sinners when they ask for them in private.
ii) The sacraments should not be denied to private sinners who ask for them in public.
15f) Simulation and Dissimulation of the Sacraments
The simulation of a sacrament is any change in its matter, form, or the necessary intention that the minister does in private in order to make it invalid and thereby deceive the recipient. It is never licit. It is a deception, and it also can have serious consequences for the person who wants to receive the sacrament.45
The dissimulation of a sacrament is the performance of a non-sacramental rite that those around deem sacramental. This is the case, for example, of a confessor who has to refuse absolution to a penitent and, telling him so, gives him an ordinary blessing so that those around do not realize that he was not absolved. Dissimulation is lawful when a proportionate cause warrants it.
16. The Subject of the Sacraments
Only while in this life can people receive the sacraments. Still, not everyone can receive all the sacraments: Those who are not baptized can receive only Baptism, while those who are already baptized can receive the others; a child cannot receive the Sacrament of Marriage.
For the valid reception of a sacrament, the following conditions are required from the subject:
· Previous reception of the Baptism of water for the reception of the rest of the sacraments46
· The intention of receiving it if the subject has use of reason47
For the lawful reception of the sacraments, the following conditions are required:
· Repentance for the sacraments of the dead; the state of grace for the sacraments of the living
· Receiving them with reverence
· Not asking them from a minister who is certainly unworthy, unless there is a proportionately grave cause (for example, in danger of death, one could ask a priest who is publicly living in sin for confession or for the Anointing of the Sick; actually, these cases are explicitly permitted by law).
Footnotes:
1. Cf. CCC, 1210–1666.
2. Cf. Ibid., 1113, 1210–1211.
3. Cf. Ibid., 1131.
4. Cf. Ibid., 1084, 1145–1162.
5. St. Josemaría Escrivá, Christ is Passing By, 78.
6. Conversations with Msgr. Escrivá de Balaguer, 115.
7. Ibid.
8. LG, 2.
9. Cf. ST, III, q. 70, a. 1.
10. Cf. Ibid., I-II, q. 102, a. 5. Many authors, St. Thomas among them, support the existence of sacramental rites prior to the promulgation of the Old Testament law since the expulsion of Adam and Eve from Paradise: cf. Ibid., III, q. 61, a. 3; q. 65, a. 1, ad 7; CCC, 1093–1096.
11. Cf. ST, III, q. 62, a. 6, ad 3.
12. Cf. DS 1602.
13. Cf. DS 1601; CCC, 1114–1116.
14. Cf. DS 1728.
15. Cf. DS 1728.
16. St. Augustine, Civ., 22,17; cf. ST, III, q. 64, a. 2 ad 3.
17. Cf. CCC, 1117–1134.
18. Cf. Ibid., 53, 1153–1155.
19. Cf. DS 1728, 3857ff.; CIC, 841; CCC, 1125, 1205.
20. CIC, 846.
21. Cf. DS 1310, 1601; CCC, 1113, 1210.
22. Cf. Roman Catechism, 2.21; ST, III, q. 65, a. 1. Following the doctrine of St. Thomas, the Roman Catechism gives the following arguments to show that it was fitting for Christ to institute precisely these sacraments and no others: There is a certain analogy between the natural and the supernatural life. As regards the former, the individual needs five things and society needs two. The individual must be born (which, in supernatural life, is achieved by Baptism), grow in strength (Confirmation), be nurtured (Eucharist), be healed when sick (Penance), and recover after the sickness (Anointing of the Sick). Society needs to be governed (Holy Orders) and to perpetuate itself (Marriage).
23. Cf. ST, III, q. 65, a. 3.
24. Cf. DS 1604; CCC, 1129.
25. Cf. DS 1606.
26. Cf. DS 1609.
27. Cf. DS 1606–08; CCC, 1084, 1127–1128.
28. Cf. ST, III, q. 62, aa. 1, 3, 4.
29. Cf. DS 1528–29; CCC, 1128.
30. Cf. ST, III, q. 62, a. 2; CCC, 1129, 2003.
31. Cf. DS 1310, 1609; CCC, 1121, 1272, 1304, 1582.
32. Cf. ST, III, q. 63, a. 5 ad 3.
33. Priesthood, being a special dedication to the worship of God, is closely related to the sacraments. In the lowest degree, Baptism enables the faithful to offer worship that will be acceptable to God. It also enables them to receive the sacraments. In the second degree, Confirmation enriches and strengthens this ability with a special indwelling of the Holy Spirit. Finally, in the highest degree—essentially different from the other two—Holy Orders confers the ability to make and distribute the sacraments. The Second Vatican Council teaches the essential difference between the common priesthood of the faithful and ministerial priesthood, as well as the fact that both are ordained to one another. Both participate in the priesthood of Christ, but in different ways (cf. LG, 10, 11).
34. Cf. Ibid., 7; CCC, 1117–1118.
35. CIC, 840.
36. Cf. CCC, 1130.
37. Cf. Ibid., 1115, 1120, 1136–1144.
38. Cf. SC, 29; CCC, 1143.
39. Cf. DS 1612.
40. Cf. DS 1154.
41. Cf. DS 123.
42. Cf. DS 356, 793, 914.
43. CIC, 843.
44. Cf. LG, 37.
45. Cf. DS 2129.
46. Cf. CIC, 842.
47. Cf. ST, III, q. 68, a. 7 ad 2.
The sacraments are the seven great means that God has given the Church so that her members may grow in the life of grace.1 The first five correspond to the different needs of the Christian’s spiritual life: birth, growth, nutrition, cure in sickness, and preparation for the soul’s union with God. The other two correspond to the needs of Christian society: the Christian priesthood and the Christian family.
Following this division, we will study:
· the sacraments of Christian initiation: Baptism, Confirmation, and Holy Eucharist,
· the sacraments of healing: Penance and Anointing of the Sick,
· the sacraments for the needs of the community: Holy Orders and Matrimony.2
In this analysis of the sacraments, we will study both the doctrine of faith (dogma) and the practical norms regulating their administration and reception (morals). The special nature of the Sacrament of Marriage warrants the inclusion of a study of the properties and obligations of natural marriage, which is a traditional approach.
As theologians examined the doctrine of faith of each of the sacraments, some properties common to all were identified. This led to the term sacrament being used exclusively to refer to these seven rites. This systematic device was, fundamentally, the work of the Scholastic movement, which reached its zenith in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries.
The fundamental documents of the Magisterium of the Church on the seven sacraments are the following:
· The Decree for the Armenians. In 1439, the Ecumenical Council of Florence composed this document to the Armenians so that they could officially know the faith of the Roman Church. Among other things, the decree contains an “Instruction on the Sacraments,” which closely follows a work of St. Thomas Aquinas on the same topic.
· The documents of the Council of Trent. In order to correct the Protestant errors, the Council had to expound all the doctrine about the sacraments in detail. Between 1547 and 1563, eight council sessions were devoted to this subject.
2. The Essence of the Sacraments
A sacrament is an external or sensible sign, instituted by Christ, that causes the grace it signifies.3 We will study the elements of this definition in detail:
· It is sensible. It is known through the external senses. A merely internal perception, such as an image produced by the imagination, would not be a sacrament.
· It is a sign. It is something that represents a reality (the signified thing) distinct from the sign itself. The sign is an intermediary between the signified thing and the subject who knows it. Some signs, like the letters of the alphabet, are based solely on convention. The sacramental sign, however, bears a natural resemblance to the signified reality. Thus, the washing or anointing of the body signifies the cleansing or comforting of the soul, respectively.
· It is instituted by Christ. Only God can give grace, and, therefore, only he can decide what means or channels he will use to communicate it to us.
· It causes the grace it signifies. The sacraments communicate both sanctifying grace and the specific grace of each sacrament.
3. The Sacraments are Sensible and Material Signs
The sacraments are sensible and material signs (words and actions), accessible to mankind. They really bestow the grace that they signify; they do this through the action of Christ and the power of the Holy Spirit.4
God our Lord is infinite; his love is inexhaustible; his clemency and tenderness toward us are limitless. He grants us his grace in many other ways, but he has expressly and freely established, as only he can do, seven effective signs to enable men to share in the merits of the redemption in a stable, simple and accessible way.5
We may wonder why God wanted to use material means to give us his grace. It may well be for pedagogical reasons, since in our present corporeal condition, material things help us grasp what is spiritual. In a certain way, we come to understand supernatural realities through our senses. The humanity of Christ, words and actions, songs and music, sacred images, and other sacred objects have a similar pedagogical function.
We could go even further than the pedagogical aspect. “Authentic Christianity, which professes the resurrection of all flesh, has always quite logically opposed dis-incarnation, without fear of being judged materialistic. We can, therefore, rightfully speak of a Christian materialism, which is boldly opposed to those materialisms that are blind to the spirit.”6
What are the sacraments, which early Christians described as the footprints of the Incarnate Word, if not the clearest manifestation of this way that God has chosen in order to sanctify us and to lead us to heaven? Don’t you see that each sacrament is the love of God, with all its creative and redemptive power, giving itself to us by way of material means?7
4. Errors Regarding the Sacraments
The doctrine about the sacraments was a main source of error in the teachings of the sixteenth-century Protestant reformers. They denied the existence of some sacraments and heretically misinterpreted the essence of the rest.
In general, they retained only the Sacraments of Baptism and Holy Eucharist. As to the latter, only Luther accepted the Real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist. Still, he erroneously claimed that the substance of bread and wine were present alongside the body and blood of our Lord (a doctrine known as consubstantiation).
In various ways, Protestant groups denied that the sacraments really cause grace. Some thought that the sacraments would only awaken faith—the reception of grace being a consequence. Others claimed that the sacraments were only signs of having already received grace, of membership in the Church and union with it. This is not surprising, since they held an erroneous doctrine on grace, understanding it as the mere non-imputation of sin.
5. The Sacraments in the Old Testament
“The Church of Christ was prepared in marvelous fashion in the history of the people of Israel and in the Old Alliance.”8 Through the action of the Holy Spirit, certain sacramental rites in the Old Law prefigured the sacraments of the New Law. These rites were circumcision (which prefigured Baptism),9 the paschal lamb and the bread of the presence (which prefigured the Eucharist [cf. 1 Cor 5:7]), the various purification and expiation rites (which prefigured Penance), and the consecration of Levites and priests (which prefigured the Sacrament of Holy Orders).10
These rites, however, did not confer sanctifying grace as the seven sacraments do. They merely prepared the soul for the reception of grace.11 This essential difference clearly illustrates the contrast between that time (when redemption had only been promised) and the present time (when it has already been achieved by Christ).12
6. The Institution of the Sacraments by Christ
God is the principal author of all the sacraments. Only God has the power to give the capacity to confer supernatural grace to a sensible and material sign.
He established the sacraments through the humanity of Christ. The mysteries of the life of Christ brought salvation to mankind. What was visible in our Savior has been passed to his mysteries (sacraments). The sacraments are like “forces coming” from the body of Christ (cf. Lk 5:17; 6:19; 8:46). We can say, then, that Christ is:
· the principal author of the sacraments through his divinity,
· the ministerial or instrumental author through his humanity.
All of the sacraments were instituted by Christ. This is affirmed in the documents of the Council of Trent, though not in those exact words.13 This council defined that the Church cannot change the substance of the sacraments.14 If the Church cannot change them, she certainly could not have had the authority to establish them in the beginning (as some medieval authors erroneously held).
Christ so specifically determined the matter and form of the sacraments that it is not licit to substantially change them. Christ could have determined each of the minor details of the administration of the sacraments (individual determination), but all authors agree that he did not: These details have changed with time and differ with the rites of the Catholic Church.
Christ could have determined the nature of each sacrament in a general way (generic determination), for example, by telling his apostles, “I want you to establish a rite signifying the cleansing of the soul from sin. I, with my power, will give that rite the capacity actually to forgive sin. It is up to you to decide the matter and form of the rite.” If that were the case, Christ would still be the author of the sacraments, but the Church would have power over their matter and form. The Council of Trent, however, defines that this was not so.15
Therefore, we must hold that Christ specifically determined the matter and form of each sacrament (specific determination), leaving the accidental aspects open to changes. An example of such a change is the above-mentioned differences between the Latin Rite and the other rites of the Catholic Church.
7. The Sacraments of the Church
The Holy Spirit leads the Church “into all the truth” (Jn 16:13); under his influence, the Church recognized the treasure received from Christ (the sacraments) and determined their “dispensation” (cf. Mt 13:52; 1 Cor 4:1).
The sacraments belong to the Church. They exist:
· through the Church, because she is the instrument of Christ’s action; he acts through her by virtue of the mission of the Holy Spirit, and
· for the Church, because “the sacraments constitute the Church.”16
United to Christ, her head, the Church celebrates the sacraments as a priestly community structured by the baptismal priesthood of all the faithful and the ministerial priesthood.
The Holy Spirit prepares the faithful for the reception of the sacraments through the word of God and through faith. The faith of a well-disposed heart receives the word of God. The sacraments strengthen and express that faith.17
8. Matter and Form of the Sacramental Sign
God speaks to people through actions and words—closely linked—that shed light on each other.18 The sacramental sign is composed of two elements, called matter and form by way of analogy with the metaphysical composition of material beings.
The matter is the material and sensible action or gesture; the form is the accompanying words that declare the special meaning of that external action or gesture. For example, to wash with water is the matter of Baptism, and its form is the words “I baptize you in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit.” To baptize precisely means “to wash.”
From the above-mentioned matter, which is specifically called proximate matter, we can distinguish remote matter, which is the basic material element used in the action or gesture. By analogy, any equivalent element is called remote matter, even if it is not material. In the case of Baptism, the remote matter is natural water.
This analysis is especially useful in determining what is required in each case for a sacramental sign—therefore a sacrament—to exist.
Matter and form must be united to constitute a sacramental sign. The type of union needed varies with the sacrament, as we will see when we study them individually. In the Eucharist, for example, the priest must say the words of the consecration in the actual and close presence of the bread and wine. In Holy Orders, however, there is a certain interval between the laying of the hands (matter) and the words of the consecration (form). Still, both are part of the same rite.
9. The Matter and Form of the Sacraments are Immutable
Since the sacramental sign has been instituted by Christ, it is evident that only Christ can change it, and he does not. The Church received the command to keep and administer the sacraments. She has also received the power to adapt the administrative details to human needs, provided the substance is not changed, as the Council of Trent recalled.19
We have, then, to clarify the distinction between an accidental and a substantial change:
9a) Changes in the Remote Matter
· There is a substantial change when it is generally recognized that the material element has changed. This is shown by a change in name, usage, or signification. For example, when a strong dye is added to water, there is more pure water there than in, say, seawater. However, it is no longer water, but ink, and its use is no longer called washing. Therefore, it cannot be used for Baptism.
· There is an accidental change when people generally recognize that the matter is still the same. In the case of Baptism, it is indifferent whether the water comes from a well or from the tap, or is hot or cold.
9b) Changes in the Form
· There is a substantial change when the words no longer manifest the meaning of the action. For example, it would be invalid to say “I baptize you in the name of the Sts. Peter and Paul …”
· There is an accidental change when the new words keep the same meaning, for example, “I do baptize you” instead of “I baptize you.”
All of this is especially useful when one has to judge about the validity of a sacrament or the lawfulness of administering it in a certain way. Thus, the following principles apply in the administration of the sacraments:
· Whoever introduces a substantial change in the matter or form of a sacrament renders it invalid. If they do so knowingly, they commit a very serious sin.
· Whoever introduces an accidental change does not render the sacrament invalid, but if it is done knowingly and without sufficient cause, that person commits a sin. The gravity of the sin depends on the extent of the change. This would be the case, for example, of a priest who, while giving absolution, feels “inspired” to add his own comments, or alter the order of the words, but kept the same essential meaning. He might say something like: “By virtue of my powers, I forgive all your mortal sins and all the venial sins you are sorry for, in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit; so that henceforth you may be a good child of God.” The Code of Canon Law specifies that “the liturgical books, approved by the competent authority, are to be faithfully followed in the celebration of the sacraments.”20
10. Doubtful Cases
Except in cases of grave spiritual need, the use of doubtful matter—of whose suitability for the sacrament one is not morally sure—is a mortal sin. One unnecessarily risks performing an invalid sacrament, thus, depriving the subject of the grace.
If there is any doubt about the capacity of a subject to receive a sacrament that cannot be resolved, the sacrament may be administered conditionally. In this way, the sacrament is not wasted, since if the condition is not met, there is no sacrament. For example, if one doubts whether the subject is validly baptized or not, the following formula should be used: “If you are not baptized, I baptize you …” If one doubts whether the subject is still alive, the Anointing of the Sick may be administered, but the form must be preceded by the words: “If you are alive.” In this way, both dangers are avoided: The sacrament is not wasted, nor is a person who is really in need (and who would otherwise suffer a great spiritual harm) deprived of the grace.
11. The Number of the Sacraments
The existence of the following sacraments is a dogma of faith: Baptism, Confirmation, Eucharist, Penance, Anointing of the Sick, Holy Orders, and Matrimony. The councils of Florence and Trent both defined this.21
Tradition—in both the Eastern and the Western sources—agrees with this enumeration. However, as we said before, the use of the expression “seven sacraments” started only at the beginning of the twelfth century, and the study of their common properties began even later. This is because the term sacrament had a wide range of meanings before then. It included many other rites and sacred ceremonies, such as blessings and consecrations of persons or things. Nevertheless, each of the seven sacraments was well known from the beginning, and their properties, which were likewise known and expounded, are what we understand the term sacrament to mean.
In the study of the sacraments, we could first study each of the rites that are now called sacraments, then infer their common properties and formulate a general doctrine of the sacraments. However, we will take that for granted and follow the usual reverse approach, which is easier and clearer.22
All the sacraments are ordained in a special manner to the Eucharist—the center of them all—in which not only grace but also the very Author of grace is given.23
12. Necessity of the Sacraments
The Church affirms that the sacraments are necessary for salvation for the believers of the New Covenant.24 Some sacraments are necessary for the Christian community (Holy Orders and Matrimony), while others are necessary for the individual (Baptism, Penance, Eucharist, Confirmation, and Extreme Unction—also called Anointing of the Sick).
Among the latter, two are necessary means, that is, without them (or at least, the desire of receiving them) there is no salvation. These are Baptism and, for those who have committed mortal sins after Baptism, Penance. Some authors hold that the Eucharist is also necessary for those who have reached the use of reason.
13. Sacraments of the Living and Sacraments of the Dead
The sacraments of the living are those that, in order to produce grace, require that the subject already enjoy the life of grace, that he be in the state of sanctifying grace (without any mortal sin).
The primary purpose of the sacraments of the dead is to transmit the life of grace to those deprived of it. Strictly speaking, these are Baptism and Penance, although the other sacraments can also have this effect in an accidental way, particularly the Anointing of the Sick.
14. Effects of the Sacraments
The sacraments produce supernatural grace.25 Three of them also produce character.26
It is a dogma of faith that the sacraments themselves communicate grace to all those who do not obstruct their action. The Council of Trent defined this dogma.27 Many testimonies of Scripture and Tradition support this definition (cf. Acts 2:38; 22:16; 1 Cor 6:11; Eph 5:26; 2 Tm 1:6; Ti 3:5; 1 Pt 3:21).
The Council of Trent’s definition emphasized that the sacraments communicate grace “by themselves” (ex opere operato, “by the very action that is realized”). This was meant to refute the error that the Protestants were spreading: that they produce grace ex opere operantis, “by the action of the minister or the subject.”
The sacraments are thought to cause grace through physical instrumental causality. This means that the sacraments have a real power of their own to produce grace. This differs from moral causality, in which the performance of the sacramental sign would immediately move God to grant his grace. In the second case, the physical causality of the sacraments is merely instrumental, that is, an instrument that God, supreme cause of all graces, wants to use just as a painter uses his brush.28
14a) Sanctifying Grace
The grace conferred by the sacraments is sanctifying grace: a free gift of God that produces a supernatural participation in the divine nature, thus making us children of God.
The sacraments of the dead communicate this grace by themselves for the first time (first grace). Occasionally, they may cause its increase, as in the case of a person in the state of grace who goes to Confession (second grace).
The sacraments of the living increase sanctifying grace by themselves, though occasionally they may also cause its first communication. This would be the case, for example, of a person in the state of sin who, sincerely thinking he is in the state of grace, receives a sacrament in good faith.
The amount of sanctifying grace that is received depends on the attitude and dispositions of the subject: attention, devotion, or desire to improve.29
14b) Sacramental Grace
Besides conferring or increasing sanctifying grace, each sacrament produces a specific type of grace called sacramental grace. This is one of the reasons why there are multiple sacraments. Sacramental grace can be described as the right to receive the actual graces needed to fulfill the obligations born of the sacrament or to better achieve its end. Actual grace is the specific supernatural help that is needed to perform a good action.30
Thus, the sacramental grace of Baptism, among other things, gives the help that is needed to lead a clean and sinless spiritual life. The grace of Confirmation strengthens us to face temptations and difficulties. The sacramental grace of the Eucharist nourishes and develops the spiritual life. The grace of the Anointing of the Sick, among other effects, comforts the soul at the moment of death. Holy Orders gives the right to receive help for the proper fulfillment of the duties that it imposes. Marriage gives the help that is needed to comply with the demands of married life.
14c) Revival of the Sacraments
As we have mentioned, the sacraments do not produce grace if there is an obstacle to receiving grace in the subject. This obstacle consists in the lack of the necessary dispositions—for example, lack of faith in the sacrament, or reception of a sacrament of the living while in the state of sin. One should note that obstructing the grace of God is a serious sin.
In some sacraments, the grace that is missed due to an obstacle can be recovered later, after the obstacle that was present during the reception of the sacrament has been removed. This is called the revival of the sacrament. The sacraments that are subject to revival are those that are received only once or only once while some specific conditions persist. Specifically, these are Baptism, Confirmation, Anointing of the Sick, Holy Orders, and Marriage. Holy Eucharist and Penance cannot be revived.
The necessary and sufficient condition for revival of a sacrament is the presence of the disposition that was lacking when the sacrament was invalidly received.
14d) The Character
Three of the sacraments—Baptism, Confirmation, and Holy Orders—confer a character. This is an indelible spiritual sign impressed on the soul. Hence, these three sacraments may be received only once.31
This idea of a sign or seal appears several times in the Scriptures (cf. 2 Cor 1:21–22; Eph 1:13–14; 4:30). St. Thomas compares the sacramental character to the ensign or badge of a soldier: He remains a soldier even when he is not at war.32 We could think of it as an indelible tattoo showing enlistment in an army.
However, the real nature of the character is not known with certainty. Theologians agree that the characters conferred by these three sacraments are different from each other, but theologians are not unanimous in the description of their respective specific properties.
The character is usually explained in terms of a progressive enrichment of the soul’s identification with Christ as priest. Thus, aside from grace producing a similarity with Christ according to his nature, these three sacraments produce, through the character, different stages or degrees of similarity with Christ according to his priestly functions.33
In effect, the character has the following effects for a Christian:
· The individual is distinguished from all others who do not have it.
· The individual is consecrated in a special manner for the worship of God.
· All of this is made possible through his special configuration with Christ the priest.
14e) Other Effects of the Sacraments
As a consequence of their principal effects, which are grace and character, the sacraments produce a general enrichment of Christian life and a greater unity among the faithful of the Church.34
The present Code of Canon Law points out that, as “actions of Christ and of the Church, they are signs and means by which faith is expressed and strengthened, worship is offered to God and our sanctification is brought about. Thus they contribute in the most effective manner to establishing, strengthening and manifesting ecclesiastical communion.”35 In the sacraments, the Church receives the dowry of her inheritance as the bride of Christ. She participates in eternal life, although still a pilgrim, waiting for the blessed hope—the glorious appearance of our God and Savior Jesus Christ (cf. Ti 2:13).36
15. Minister of the Sacraments
Christ is always the principal minister united to his body, the ecclesial community.
Not all the members of his Mystical Body, however, have the same function. God calls some to render a special service to the community: the ministers.
The minister needs special empowerment or consecration to administer the sacraments. He is consecrated through the Sacrament of Holy Orders, which enables him to act as representative of Christ, the Head. This consecration is needed to administer all the sacraments except Baptism and Marriage.
The minister is an icon, and representative, of Christ the Priest. For this reason, in administering the sacraments, he must fully conform to the intentions of Christ. Thus, a special power is needed to administer them—not any minister can administer all the sacraments. He must also intend to do what the Church does, and properly apply the form to the matter.
Only a validly consecrated man, or at least one lawfully chosen for this purpose by a legitimate authority, can administer the sacraments.37
The ordinary minister is the person who, by his office or position, has the responsibility of administering a certain sacrament. For example, the bishop is the ordinary minister of the Sacrament of Confirmation. The extraordinary minister can administer it in case of need, but, at times, a special delegation is also required. For example, the extraordinary minister of Confirmation is a priest who is duly delegated by the bishop.
There are also particular ministries, not consecrated through the Sacrament of Holy Orders, whose functions are determined by the liturgical traditions and pastoral needs. Among these are the acolytes, readers, commentators, and singers, all of whom perform a liturgical ministry.38
15a) The Holiness of the Minister
Neither the faith nor the state of grace of the minister is necessary for the valid administration of a sacrament. This was defined by the Council of Trent,39 confirming definitions of the Council of Constance,40 other particular councils,41 and decisions of previous popes.42 Several passages of Sacred Scripture (cf. 1 Cor 4:1; 1 Cor 3:5, 7; Mt 7:22) and testimony from Tradition support this view.
However, except in cases of pressing need, the lawful administration of a sacrament does require the minister to be in the state of grace. It is understood that a pressing need exists when a person needs the sacrament for his salvation: Baptism, Confession, or the Anointing of the Sick in danger of death, and some other cases we will see later.
15b) The Intention of the Minister
There are different types of intention:
· Actual intention is explicitly present here and now.
· Virtual intention is an actual intention that one had before, never retracted, and at present—though not renewed and perhaps not even noticed—continues to influence one’s actions. It is, thus, called virtual because it continues to give its virtus, its “force,” to the action. For example, a person who wants to pay several bills keeps the virtual intention of paying even if he gets distracted and thinks of other things while signing the checks. If he did not intend to pay, he would not sign them. A priest who has to say Mass and puts on the vestments has the virtual intention of celebrating Mass, even though he may not be explicitly thinking that he wants to celebrate the holy sacrifice. The priest who sits in the confessional and, after hearing the penitent, gives absolution has the virtual intention of administering penance, even if he is not explicitly thinking that he wants to forgive sins.
· Habitual intention is an actual intention that one had before and never retracted, but at present does not influence one’s actions. This would be the case of a student who initially wants to get good grades, but later forgets and becomes lazy, or the person who wants to reach sanctity, but later disregards the exercises of piety.
· Interpretative intention is the intention that one presumes that a person would have if that person were conscious of the real situation, even though he never had (and does not now have) that intention. This would be the case of a validly baptized person who is brought up in heresy and persists in it in good faith. If he falls into a coma, one may presume that, were he to know his true situation, he would ask for sacramental absolution and the Anointing of the Sick. On these grounds, the sacraments could be administered.
All of this can be summarized as follows:
· Actual intention is present, influences the action, and the agent is aware of it.
· Virtual intention is present, influences the action, but the agent is not aware of it.
· Habitual intention was present in the past as actual but does not currently affect the necessary actions, which are left undone.
· Interpretative intention was never present, is not present now, and does not affect the agent, who never thought about it. However, as its definition shows, it is not unreal either.
After this clarification, we can establish the following principles:
· For the administration of the sacraments, the minister must have actual or at least virtual intention, since the actions must be properly and fully human.
· For the valid reception of the sacraments, it is usually enough to have habitual intention or, in case of pressing necessity, at least interpretative intention.
Concerning the object of the intention, the minister must intend to do what the Church does through the sacraments. It is not necessary to intend what the Church intends, but only what she actually does, even if what she does is not known explicitly. For example, in an extreme case, a Muslim midwife may baptize a child out of sympathy for the Christian mother who died in the delivery, wanting to do “what Christians do.” If the matter and form are properly used, the Baptism is valid. In practice, however, it would be repeated with a conditional clause.
15c) The Attention of the Minister
For valid administration of the sacraments, it is enough for the minister to have external attention, which is the absence of any other simultaneous action that would make interior attention impossible.
For lawful administration, it is further required to have internal attention, which is the application of the mind to the actions at hand, that is, the absence of voluntary distractions.
15d) The Obligation of Administering the Sacraments
“Sacred ministers may not deny the sacraments to those who opportunely ask for them, are properly disposed and are not prohibited by law from receiving them.”43 The Code of Canon Law states the right of the faithful to receive the sacraments, which was explicitly mentioned in a document of the Second Vatican Council.44
Those entrusted by office with the care of souls (like the parish priests) are obligated by justice to administer the sacraments to their subjects. In cases of extreme need, they must even risk their lives to fulfill that obligation.
For other ministers, it is an obligation of charity. It is a grave obligation if the denial of the sacrament could result in grave scandal or great spiritual harm. This would be the case of a priest called in the middle of the night to assist a dying person because, although he is not the parish priest, he lives nearby.
In case of a pressing need, a minister who is not in charge of that soul is also obliged to administer the sacraments, even if it is a great inconvenience to him. However, in cases of ordinary or light need, the obligation is not that strict.
15e) The Obligation to Deny the Sacraments
The obligation to deny the sacraments can be summarized in the following principles:
· It is never lawful to administer a sacrament to a subject who is incapable of receiving it such that the sacrament is clearly wasted. For example, it is never lawful to confirm or give Communion to an unbaptized person, to give the Anointing of the Sick to somebody who has been clearly dead for many hours, or to give absolution when there is certainly no repentance.
· It is not lawful to administer a sacrament to a subject who is unworthy, except for a very serious reason. This would be irreverence toward a sacred thing; the minister would be unfaithful to the mission received from Christ, and greater harm would be caused to the subject (cf. Mt 7:6).
Those unworthy of receiving the sacraments are: excommunicates until they are absolved; heretics until they abandon their heresy and are reconciled; public sinners until they repent, give public satisfaction, and go to Confession; and—for the sacraments of the living—those in mortal sin.
The very serious reason mentioned above exists when:
o the sacramental seal of confession would be violated. This may happen, for example, when a priest denies Communion to a person whom he had previously denied the absolution;
o the person asking for the sacrament would suffer a very serious infamy if it is denied. For example, a priest who denies Communion to someone whom he knows had committed adultery and has not yet gone to Confession would cause the person to suffer infamy;
o the faithful would suffer scandal. When observing the refusal to administer a sacrament to an unworthy person and not knowing the cause of the refusal, the faithful as a whole may be alarmed and refrain from the sacraments for fear of being publicly rejected.
For practical purposes, two rules could be followed:
i) The sacraments (except Marriage, in which the priest is only a witness) should be denied to public sinners who are not known to have repented, and to private sinners when they ask for them in private.
ii) The sacraments should not be denied to private sinners who ask for them in public.
15f) Simulation and Dissimulation of the Sacraments
The simulation of a sacrament is any change in its matter, form, or the necessary intention that the minister does in private in order to make it invalid and thereby deceive the recipient. It is never licit. It is a deception, and it also can have serious consequences for the person who wants to receive the sacrament.45
The dissimulation of a sacrament is the performance of a non-sacramental rite that those around deem sacramental. This is the case, for example, of a confessor who has to refuse absolution to a penitent and, telling him so, gives him an ordinary blessing so that those around do not realize that he was not absolved. Dissimulation is lawful when a proportionate cause warrants it.
16. The Subject of the Sacraments
Only while in this life can people receive the sacraments. Still, not everyone can receive all the sacraments: Those who are not baptized can receive only Baptism, while those who are already baptized can receive the others; a child cannot receive the Sacrament of Marriage.
For the valid reception of a sacrament, the following conditions are required from the subject:
· Previous reception of the Baptism of water for the reception of the rest of the sacraments46
· The intention of receiving it if the subject has use of reason47
For the lawful reception of the sacraments, the following conditions are required:
· Repentance for the sacraments of the dead; the state of grace for the sacraments of the living
· Receiving them with reverence
· Not asking them from a minister who is certainly unworthy, unless there is a proportionately grave cause (for example, in danger of death, one could ask a priest who is publicly living in sin for confession or for the Anointing of the Sick; actually, these cases are explicitly permitted by law).
Footnotes:
1. Cf. CCC, 1210–1666.
2. Cf. Ibid., 1113, 1210–1211.
3. Cf. Ibid., 1131.
4. Cf. Ibid., 1084, 1145–1162.
5. St. Josemaría Escrivá, Christ is Passing By, 78.
6. Conversations with Msgr. Escrivá de Balaguer, 115.
7. Ibid.
8. LG, 2.
9. Cf. ST, III, q. 70, a. 1.
10. Cf. Ibid., I-II, q. 102, a. 5. Many authors, St. Thomas among them, support the existence of sacramental rites prior to the promulgation of the Old Testament law since the expulsion of Adam and Eve from Paradise: cf. Ibid., III, q. 61, a. 3; q. 65, a. 1, ad 7; CCC, 1093–1096.
11. Cf. ST, III, q. 62, a. 6, ad 3.
12. Cf. DS 1602.
13. Cf. DS 1601; CCC, 1114–1116.
14. Cf. DS 1728.
15. Cf. DS 1728.
16. St. Augustine, Civ., 22,17; cf. ST, III, q. 64, a. 2 ad 3.
17. Cf. CCC, 1117–1134.
18. Cf. Ibid., 53, 1153–1155.
19. Cf. DS 1728, 3857ff.; CIC, 841; CCC, 1125, 1205.
20. CIC, 846.
21. Cf. DS 1310, 1601; CCC, 1113, 1210.
22. Cf. Roman Catechism, 2.21; ST, III, q. 65, a. 1. Following the doctrine of St. Thomas, the Roman Catechism gives the following arguments to show that it was fitting for Christ to institute precisely these sacraments and no others: There is a certain analogy between the natural and the supernatural life. As regards the former, the individual needs five things and society needs two. The individual must be born (which, in supernatural life, is achieved by Baptism), grow in strength (Confirmation), be nurtured (Eucharist), be healed when sick (Penance), and recover after the sickness (Anointing of the Sick). Society needs to be governed (Holy Orders) and to perpetuate itself (Marriage).
23. Cf. ST, III, q. 65, a. 3.
24. Cf. DS 1604; CCC, 1129.
25. Cf. DS 1606.
26. Cf. DS 1609.
27. Cf. DS 1606–08; CCC, 1084, 1127–1128.
28. Cf. ST, III, q. 62, aa. 1, 3, 4.
29. Cf. DS 1528–29; CCC, 1128.
30. Cf. ST, III, q. 62, a. 2; CCC, 1129, 2003.
31. Cf. DS 1310, 1609; CCC, 1121, 1272, 1304, 1582.
32. Cf. ST, III, q. 63, a. 5 ad 3.
33. Priesthood, being a special dedication to the worship of God, is closely related to the sacraments. In the lowest degree, Baptism enables the faithful to offer worship that will be acceptable to God. It also enables them to receive the sacraments. In the second degree, Confirmation enriches and strengthens this ability with a special indwelling of the Holy Spirit. Finally, in the highest degree—essentially different from the other two—Holy Orders confers the ability to make and distribute the sacraments. The Second Vatican Council teaches the essential difference between the common priesthood of the faithful and ministerial priesthood, as well as the fact that both are ordained to one another. Both participate in the priesthood of Christ, but in different ways (cf. LG, 10, 11).
34. Cf. Ibid., 7; CCC, 1117–1118.
35. CIC, 840.
36. Cf. CCC, 1130.
37. Cf. Ibid., 1115, 1120, 1136–1144.
38. Cf. SC, 29; CCC, 1143.
39. Cf. DS 1612.
40. Cf. DS 1154.
41. Cf. DS 123.
42. Cf. DS 356, 793, 914.
43. CIC, 843.
44. Cf. LG, 37.
45. Cf. DS 2129.
46. Cf. CIC, 842.
47. Cf. ST, III, q. 68, a. 7 ad 2.