10. The Virtues of Faith and Hope
Introduction
After having studied the Fundamentals of Moral Theology, that is, the general principles that direct human behavior, we are now going to examine the specific moral obligations in the different fields of human conduct.
We will study both the natural and the supernatural obligations. We have studied the supernatural obligations directly related to the sacraments in the first volume, together with the dogmatic considerations (treatise K, The Sacraments). The natural obligations arising from marriage—a natural contract as well as a sacrament—have been also included in the first volume.
These natural and supernatural obligations can be approached following the Commandments of the Decalogue. The Decalogue is a compendium of all the natural obligations. Thus the supernatural obligations that pertain to faith, hope, and charity, as well as some of the Commandments of the Church, are usually studied under the First Commandment.
The second approach consists in studying first the acts to which the three theological virtues tend. The resulting obligations are strictly supernatural, although the natural obligation of loving God above all things is also included. The acts to which the four cardinal virtues tend are studied next.
Both approaches have their own advantages. The second is followed by St Ambrose of Milan in his De Officiis (“Treatise on Duties”), following the example of Aristotle and Cicero; St Thomas used it too.
We will use this approach. In either method, the topics studied are the same. We can establish the following correspondence:
· The first three commandments of the Decalogue and some Commandments of the Church are studied under the virtue of religion, which is a part of the virtue of justice, and the acts of the theological virtues referring directly to God; nos 1-13 and 61-68.
· The Fourth Commandment is covered by the virtues of piety, reverence, and obedience, which are also parts of justice; nos. 69-77.
· The Fifth Commandment is studied under the virtue of justice proper, as the right to life; nos. 14-18 and 33-34.
· The Sixth and Ninth Commandments are studied under the virtue of chastity, which is a part of the virtue of temperance; no. 84a) and b).
· The Seventh and Tenth Commandments correspond to the virtue of justice as the right to property and work; nos. 24-32 and 42-60.
· The Eighth Commandment is considered under the virtue of truthfulness, also a part of justice; nos. 35-41.
Part I: THE THEOLOGICAL VIRTUES
The Virtues of Faith and Hope
(Related to the First Three Commandments)
FAITH
Moral life begins with faith in God. St. Paul talks of the “obedience of faith” (Rom 1:5; 16:26) as a basic obligation. He shows that ignorance of God is the source and explanation for many moral aberrations (cf. Rom 1:18–32). The first commandment asks us to take good care of our faith.1
1. The Nature of Faith
In common language, faith has several meanings, ranging from opinion to conviction. Here, faith is a firm belief in what we are told based on the authority and honesty of the person who is affirming it. When the one affirming is God, we speak of faith in God, or supernatural faith.
The special relation between supernatural faith and hope is highlighted by a passage of the epistle to the Hebrews, which defines supernatural faith as “the assurance of things to be hoped for, the conviction of things not seen” (Heb 11:1).
Since virtues are known through their acts, before any further study of supernatural faith, we will briefly examine what the act of faith is.
2. The Act of Faith
The act of faith is a firm, voluntary, and supernatural assent to the truths revealed by God, based on the authority of God himself.2
The act of faith is an assent. The power by which man is able to assent to a truth is the speculative intellect.3 Since the intellect, however, does not see as evident what it believes, the will must move it to assent. Being a supernatural act, this requires a special divine motion. In short, the principal role belongs to the will.4
Basically, the object of faith, or what is believed, is God specifically considered as God—God in his deity and not merely as cause of creatures. Also included within the object of faith are the rest of the things that God has revealed to us, such as the humanity of Christ, the efficacy of the sacraments, and eternal reward or punishment. All this is believed insofar as it has been truly and formally revealed by God.5
The internal motive of faith is the authority of God who reveals (cf. Rom 10:17; Mt 11:25; 1 Thes 2:13).6
2a) Properties of the Act of Faith
The properties of the act of faith are as follows:
· The act of faith is supernatural in its object and its motive, as we have just seen. It is also supernatural because of its principle: supernatural grace, which moves the will to want and enlightens the intellect so that it may assent to the object of faith (cf. Jn 6:29; Eph 2:8).7
· The act of faith is voluntary, since the will commands the intellect to assent. In order to issue that command, though, the will needs the help of divine grace. We can thus say that faith is free (cf. Mk 16:14, 16ff; Jn 3:18).8
· The act of faith is infallible, since it is based on the authority of God as author of revelation. He can neither deceive nor be deceived.9
· The act of faith must be firm, that is, it must exclude any doubt (cf. Eph 4:14).10
3. The Virtue of Faith
The virtue of faith is that supernatural habit that makes the act of faith possible. It must be remembered that the supernatural virtues are like the powers of the supernatural organism and are infused together with grace.
Repeating the concepts used for the act of faith, we can define faith as “a supernatural virtue” by which, “with the inspiration and help of God’s grace, we believe that what he has revealed is true, not because its intrinsic truth is seen with the natural light of reason, but because of the authority of God who reveals it, of God who can neither deceive nor be deceived.”11
The virtue of faith is infused by God in the soul together with sanctifying grace.12 Faith increases in the measure that sanctifying grace increases.
By itself, faith does not increase by repetition of acts. Nevertheless, through repeated acts of faith:
· one acquires a natural habit of removing the obstacles to the growth of faith;
· in the state of grace, one merits an increase in sanctifying grace and, on this account, an increase in the accompanying virtue of faith.
The same applies to the virtues of hope and of charity, which will be studied later. Among the means to make faith grow, we can mention:
· asking God to increase it, as the apostles begged the Lord: “Increase our faith!” (Lk 17:5),
· reading the Sacred Scriptures,
· receiving instruction on the truths of faith,
· practicing it in one’s words and life,
· doing apostolate.
The weakening of the above-mentioned natural habit can, in a manner of speaking, diminish faith. Strictly speaking, however, the supernatural virtues cannot diminish, just as our participation in the divine nature through sanctifying grace (which these virtues accompany) cannot diminish.
Though they cannot diminish, they can disappear: Faith is lost through an act of infidelity, or formal heresy, which is always a mortal sin.13 It is only in this manner that faith can be lost. It is not possible to lose it “accidentally,” without one’s own guilt, or with only a slight guilt.
Faith is not lost when the loss of grace is caused by mortal sins against other virtues. Faith inheres in the intellect, which is not necessarily separated from God by mortal sin. But the will does break away from God, and thus charity is always lost with grace. Nevertheless, when grace is lost, faith becomes devoid of its end, since it no longer leads to the love of God. It is then called “formless faith” or “deformed faith,” because faith, which “arouses hope and works through love,”14 is now deprived of its proper function.
3a) Christian Attitude
Whoever consciously denies any one of the truths of faith, though still believing in the others, no longer believes with supernatural faith. Denying even one truth destroys the foundation of the faith; it implies denying that God cannot deceive nor be deceived or that the Church infallibly transmits these truths. Therefore, the other truths are believed merely as a matter of human opinion.15 Thus, among other doctrinal errors:
· a fundamentalist holds that what the Bible asserts is true, identifies the propositions that he personally considers to be asserted, and accepts them as true;
· a Christian liberal holds that some less important things that are asserted in the Bible are not true, establishes personally acceptable criteria for distinguishing important propositions from unimportant ones, and believes some things that the Bible says while disbelieving others.
A Catholic, however, believing that everything that is asserted in the Bible is true and that the whole Church cannot err in identifying divine truth, tries to share in the Church’s understanding of Scripture and the Church’s faith in the divine revealed truths found there.
Theology is “faith seeking understanding.” After a person has accepted God’s revelation, human reason should intervene to understand and justify the truths of faith. Thus, two fundamental attitudes follow:
i) Man receives divine revelation with humility.
ii) Man tries to cultivate and illuminate his faith.
And two obligations result:
i) One must preserve one’s faith, and avoid sins against it.
ii) One must propagate the true faith.
4. The Necessity of Faith
Before studying how faith is necessary for salvation, we should distinguish two types of necessity.
There is necessity as a means when something is absolutely needed as an indispensable means to attain a certain end. For example, the eye is absolutely necessary for seeing, and sanctifying grace is absolutely necessary for eternal life.
There is necessity by precept when something is required because of a command of the legitimate authority. The reception of the Eucharist, for example, is necessary by precept to attain eternal life. Ignorance or moral impossibility usually excuses from this necessity, but there is no excuse for something that is necessary as a means.
4a) Faith is Necessary as a Means
The virtue of faith (habitual faith) is necessary as a means for all men: “Without faith, it is impossible to please God” (Heb 11:6).16
The act of faith (actual and explicit faith) is necessary as a means for all adults with the use of reason.
This act of faith must implicitly extend to all revealed truths, even if the believer does not actually know all of them. Besides, one must explicitly believe with supernatural faith that God exists and that he rewards good deeds and punishes evil ones (cf. Heb 11:6). It is held as probable opinion that explicit faith in Christ the Redeemer and in the Blessed Trinity is also necessary.
4b) Faith is Necessary by Precept
(1) The internal act of faith
There is a divine precept that requires an internal act of faith about all the chief articles of faith. This is done, for example, in praying the usual prayers.
Therefore, one must know and believe the truths contained in the Creed, the Lord’s Prayer, the Ten Commandments, and the sacraments that are necessary for all (Baptism, Penance, and Holy Eucharist).
These acts of faith must be done:
· when one comes to know these truths for the first time;
· when the Church proposes a new dogmatic definition;
· several times during one’s life;
· probably, when death is imminent.
Besides, one must make an act of faith when it is required for the fulfillment of a certain obligation (as in the reception of the sacraments) and also when one suffers a serious temptation against faith that can be overcome only by an act of faith.
However, what we have been discussing is the bare and strictly necessary minimum. Besides, each Christian should endeavor to acquire a good knowledge of his faith, both of dogma and morals. It should be as complete as possible, and in keeping with the knowledge acquired in other fields as time passes. Moreover, there is an obligation to manifest and defend it.17
(2) The external profession of faith
There is a divine precept of externally professing one’s faith, since the Church founded by Christ is visible, and its worship is also visible (cf. Mt 10:32–33). On the other hand, it would be irreverent toward God to conceal the faith for a trivial reason. The external manifestation of faith, moreover, also helps to strengthen it internally.
As to the extent of the external act of faith, this precept has positive and negative aspects. It is never licit to deny the faith, either directly—through formal heresy or apostasy—or indirectly—through some external action that, in the circumstances of that moment, is understood as a denial of the faith (cf. Mt 10:32–33; 2 Mc 6:18–31).
The positive aspect obliges us to manifest our faith:
· when it is required by the honor due to God, such as when the public authority questions us about our faith, or when somebody attempts to force us to deny the faith by words or by deeds;
· when the spiritual welfare of our neighbor requires it; for example, if keeping silent would cause scandal (cf. Rom 10:9ff; Mt 10:32ff).18
Ecclesiastical law demands an act of faith also on some occasions, as in Baptism or in receiving a heretic or a schismatic into the Church, in the induction of some ecclesiastical offices, and for theology professors.
Concealing the faith can be lawful in some circumstances, and sometimes it can even be necessary (cf. Mt 7:6).19
5. Sins Against Faith
One sins against faith by omission by failing to make an act of faith when it is necessary, or by neglecting the obligation of knowing the truths of faith.
There are two types of sins against faith by commission: by excess and by defect.
i) Sins of excess against faith are the following:
· Rash credulity, by which one believes as revealed by God things that are not (cf. 1 Jn 4:1)
· Superstition, which will be studied under the virtue of religion, to which it is also opposed
ii) Sins of defect20 against faith are the following:
· Infidelity is the culpable lack of faith in an unbaptized person due to his rejection or contempt of it (cf. Mk 16:16). It is not sinful to be a pagan if one has not received a sufficient explanation of the faith. But we should keep in mind that all people are bound to seek the faith inasmuch as they have the obligation of seeking the truth and of embracing it once they have found it.21
· Heresy is the sin of a Christian who rejects the faith by stubbornly denying some revealed truth.
· Apostasy, an extreme form of heresy, is the complete rejection of Christian belief after having accepted it freely. Equivalent to apostasy is the position of Catholics who have fallen into indifferentism (“all religions are equally good”), pantheism, skepticism, agnosticism, Marxist or non-Marxist materialism, and any form of atheism.22
· Schism is the voluntary separation from the Church by stubborn disobedience to the hierarchy. In itself, it is a sin against charity, not against faith, but it usually involves a sin of heresy as well.
· Doubting the faith consists in voluntarily admitting or entertaining doubts against some aspect of the content of the faith. This can be done either by positively questioning the faith or by failing to reject the doubts that may come to one’s mind.
5a) Moral Evil of these Sins
Heresy is a mortal sin ex toto genere suo, that is, it does not admit slight matter.23 Heretics incur ecclesiastical penalties ranging from excommunication to refusal of Church burial.24
Material heresy, that is, an involuntary error in the faith, is not a sin. This can easily be the case of people who are brought up in a heretical sect.
Any person who positively doubts the faith—by doubting some truth that is known to be taught by the Church—commits a sin of heresy; such doubt destroys the formal reason of faith. A person who has negative doubts—that is, who suspends his assent to some article of faith—is not a heretic, since there is no obstinacy or stubbornness. However, that person has to strive to overcome the temptations; otherwise, a sin would be committed. The sin would be venial or mortal depending on how proximate the danger of losing one’s faith is.
6. Dangers for the Faith
6a) Dealings with Infidels and Heretics
Three general norms can be established for dealings with infidels and heretics (cf. Ti 3:10). The first applies to ordinary dealings; the other two apply to communicatio in sacris, the participation in sacred things, especially the sacraments:
i) Generally speaking, dealing with infidels and heretics in ordinary life is lawful. It would be illicit in cases that entail a danger for the faith, such as if, for example, there is a danger of falling into indifferentism. On the other hand, such dealings are highly advisable when there is no danger and there is the possibility of drawing them closer to the faith. This apostolate is called ad fidem propagandam, “for the propagation of the faith.”
ii) It is generally licit (and, at times, even advisable) to deal with non-Catholics in the religious sphere, and welcome them to Catholic rites. However, they cannot take an active part in the worship, and even less receive the sacraments. Among other reasons, they lack the dispositions that are needed to receive them fruitfully. This would be possible only in very exceptional cases, when there is good faith and the required dispositions are present. The Church has specified these cases in the Code of Canon Law.25
iii) Generally speaking, it is not licit for Catholics to participate in non-Catholic religious ceremonies. It is never licit to participate in their sacraments. One of the very few exceptions would be, under some circumstances, the Eastern Orthodox Churches.26 On the other hand, material or passive participation may be licit with sufficient cause, as in attending a wedding of non-Catholics that is contracted before a non-Catholic minister.
6b) Non-Catholic Schools
Parents have the duty of sending their children to schools that will best help them in their task of giving Christian education to their children.27 Attending non-Catholic schools can be a serious danger for the faith. It is never lawful if there is no way of counteracting the danger. This would be relatively easy if the school is truly nonsectarian, that is, has a respectful attitude toward the religious beliefs of its students, or whose instruction is even oriented toward natural religion. It would be much more difficult, on the other hand, if it is positively anti-Catholic or anti-religious.
The means to counteract these dangers are:
· vigilance over the influence of books, classmates, and professors on the students,
· education in the faith outside the school,
· frequent reception of the sacraments.
But, as always, the best defense is to “overcome evil with good” (Rom 12:21). Whenever possible, parents should promote schools where they have control over the education of their children, both in the faith and in other matters. We should keep in mind that parents have the duty of bringing up and educating their children, and the right of being respected and assisted in the fulfillment of that duty. Parents delegate part of this task in the school, and are entitled to receive help from the state for its proper fulfillment.
6c) Dangerous Readings
It is not lawful to read publications that pose a danger for the faith. The closer the danger, the more illicit it is. In judging the danger in a concrete case, one must keep in mind that people usually tend to underestimate it. Therefore, especial care and vigilance must be exercised.28
6d) Mixed Marriages
Marrying a non-Catholic usually constitutes a danger to the faith. For this reason, the Church has always discouraged mixed marriages, even to the extent of putting obstacles to their celebration.29 Nevertheless, she tolerates them when some specific conditions are met. These are basically the obligation assumed by the Catholic party to have the children baptized and brought up in the Catholic religion, and that the non-Catholic spouse will not object to the other’s practicing the Catholic religion.30
6e) Man’s Internal Dangers
Aside from the above-mentioned external dangers, there are other internal dangers. These are, basically, pride and immorality.
HOPE
Man cannot respond to the call of God’s love by his own strength alone. Man must hope that God will give him the capacity to love him in return and fulfill the commandments of love. Through the virtue of hope, man confidently awaits the divine blessing and the beatific vision of God. It also entails fear of offending God’s love and of provoking God’s punishment.31
7. The Nature of Hope
Whereas, by faith, we accept the covenant of God’s love and seek fulfillment in divine life, by hope, we live for the kingdom, relying on God’s promise to bring us to that fulfillment. To believe God’s self-revelation also means acting on it, expecting him to keep his promises. That is hope.
The theological virtue of hope can be defined as a virtue infused by God in our will, by which we are assured that, with the help of God, we will receive both eternal happiness and the means to attain it. Hope springs from faith and looks forward to the attainment of the Beatitudes.32
The object of hope is God, whose possession will make us happy. It also includes that happiness and the means to reach it (cf. Ti 3:7; Tb 2:18).33 However, the fact that this virtue also looks forward to personal happiness does not in the least diminish the merit of good works (cf. 1 Cor 9:25; Phil 3:14; 2 Tm 4:8; Rv 2:10; Ps 118:112).34
The reason for hope is the omnipotence and goodness of God.
As to its subject, all the faithful possess the virtue of hope, even those in the state of sin. The souls in purgatory also have the virtue of hope. The only exceptions are formal heretics (because they have destroyed faith, which is the foundation of hope) and those having committed a mortal sin against hope and who are not yet forgiven.
But, as in the case of faith, those who have hope but have lost sanctifying grace are said to have formless hope.
The properties of hope are as follows:
· It is a supernatural virtue, like faith.
· It is effective; through it we not only hope, but also courageously strive to reach the object of our hope.
· It is firm, insofar as it rests on God, but it is not firm as regards the certitude of our cooperation. Thus, in this life, hope is always mixed with a certain degree of mistrust for ourselves. This helps us to be humble.
8. The Necessity of Hope
The virtue of hope (habitual hope) is necessary as a means for salvation.35
Some acts of hope (actual hope) are necessary as a means for salvation for adults with the use of reason.
Acts of hope are also necessary by divine positive law (necessity from precept) in the following cases:
· At the beginning of moral life
· Some other times during one’s life
· When death is imminent
Acts of hope are also accidentally necessary when there is a serious temptation against hope, or when an action that requires an act of hope must be performed (the Sacrament of Confession, for example).
9. Sins Against Hope
Sins against hope can be classified into three types:
i) Omission is the failure to perform a necessary act of hope.
ii) Despair consists in deliberately giving up any hope of eternal salvation.36 Sometimes it is a mere faintheartedness. This is usually just a temptation that must be rejected. A different thing is positive despair, which leads to giving up all efforts to reach salvation, because the latter is deemed impossible. Positive despair is always a mortal sin (ex toto genere suo), since it implies mistrusting God, and leads away from him.37
iii) Presumption is a reckless confidence of reaching salvation by means other than those that are established by God.38 It may have different manifestations:
· Hoping to reach salvation by one’s own means, without the help of God, as the Pelagian heresy held
· Hoping to be saved by God’s help alone, without one’s own cooperation, as Luther claimed
· Expecting God’s help for evil deeds
· Hoping to receive an extraordinary help of God without sufficient cause (tempting God)
· Trusting God’s mercy in such a way that one is led to sin more easily
Footnotes:
1. Cf. CCC 1814–1816; 2087–2089.
2. Cf. ST, II-II, q. 2, a. 9.
3. Cf. Ibid., II-II, q. 4, a. 2.
4. Cf. DS 2119; ST, I-II, q. 15, a. 6.
5. Cf. ST, II-II, q. 1, a. 1.
6. Cf. DS 3032.
7. Cf. DS 3008, 3010; DV, 5.
8. Cf. DS 1526, 3010; DV, 5; DH, 10.
9. Cf. ST, II-II, q. 4, a. 8.
10. Cf. DS 1333ff.
11. DS 3008; cf. CCC, 143.
12. Cf. DS 1530ff.
13. Cf. DS 1544.
14. LG, 41.
15. Cf. ST, II-II, q. 5, a. 3.
16. Cf. DS 3012.
17. Cf. DH, 14.
18. Cf. DS 2118.
19. Cf. ST, II-II, q. 3, a. 2 ad 3.
20. Cf. CCC, 2088, 2089; CIC, 751.
21. Cf. DH, 2.
22. Cf. CCC, 2123–2128; CIC, 1374.
23. Cf. ST, II-II, q. 10, aa. 3, 6; q. 20, a. 3.
24. Cf. CIC, 1364, 1184.
25. Cf. Ibid., 844.
26. Cf. CCC, 1400.
27. Cf. Ibid., 2229.
28. Cf. CIC, 823.
29. Cf. Ibid., 1086, 1124.
30. Cf. Ibid., 1125–26; CCC, 1635.
31. Cf. CCC, 1817–1821; 2090–2092.
32. Cf. LG, 48.
33. Cf. ST, II-II, q. 17, a. 2.
34. Cf. DS 1539, 1581.
35. Cf. DS 1530.
36. Cf. CCC, 2091.
37. Cf. ST, I-II, q. 40, a. 4 ad 3; II-II, q. 20, a. 4.
38. Cf. Ibid., II-II, q. 21, aa. 1–2; CCC, 2092.
After having studied the Fundamentals of Moral Theology, that is, the general principles that direct human behavior, we are now going to examine the specific moral obligations in the different fields of human conduct.
We will study both the natural and the supernatural obligations. We have studied the supernatural obligations directly related to the sacraments in the first volume, together with the dogmatic considerations (treatise K, The Sacraments). The natural obligations arising from marriage—a natural contract as well as a sacrament—have been also included in the first volume.
These natural and supernatural obligations can be approached following the Commandments of the Decalogue. The Decalogue is a compendium of all the natural obligations. Thus the supernatural obligations that pertain to faith, hope, and charity, as well as some of the Commandments of the Church, are usually studied under the First Commandment.
The second approach consists in studying first the acts to which the three theological virtues tend. The resulting obligations are strictly supernatural, although the natural obligation of loving God above all things is also included. The acts to which the four cardinal virtues tend are studied next.
Both approaches have their own advantages. The second is followed by St Ambrose of Milan in his De Officiis (“Treatise on Duties”), following the example of Aristotle and Cicero; St Thomas used it too.
We will use this approach. In either method, the topics studied are the same. We can establish the following correspondence:
· The first three commandments of the Decalogue and some Commandments of the Church are studied under the virtue of religion, which is a part of the virtue of justice, and the acts of the theological virtues referring directly to God; nos 1-13 and 61-68.
· The Fourth Commandment is covered by the virtues of piety, reverence, and obedience, which are also parts of justice; nos. 69-77.
· The Fifth Commandment is studied under the virtue of justice proper, as the right to life; nos. 14-18 and 33-34.
· The Sixth and Ninth Commandments are studied under the virtue of chastity, which is a part of the virtue of temperance; no. 84a) and b).
· The Seventh and Tenth Commandments correspond to the virtue of justice as the right to property and work; nos. 24-32 and 42-60.
· The Eighth Commandment is considered under the virtue of truthfulness, also a part of justice; nos. 35-41.
Part I: THE THEOLOGICAL VIRTUES
The Virtues of Faith and Hope
(Related to the First Three Commandments)
FAITH
Moral life begins with faith in God. St. Paul talks of the “obedience of faith” (Rom 1:5; 16:26) as a basic obligation. He shows that ignorance of God is the source and explanation for many moral aberrations (cf. Rom 1:18–32). The first commandment asks us to take good care of our faith.1
1. The Nature of Faith
In common language, faith has several meanings, ranging from opinion to conviction. Here, faith is a firm belief in what we are told based on the authority and honesty of the person who is affirming it. When the one affirming is God, we speak of faith in God, or supernatural faith.
The special relation between supernatural faith and hope is highlighted by a passage of the epistle to the Hebrews, which defines supernatural faith as “the assurance of things to be hoped for, the conviction of things not seen” (Heb 11:1).
Since virtues are known through their acts, before any further study of supernatural faith, we will briefly examine what the act of faith is.
2. The Act of Faith
The act of faith is a firm, voluntary, and supernatural assent to the truths revealed by God, based on the authority of God himself.2
The act of faith is an assent. The power by which man is able to assent to a truth is the speculative intellect.3 Since the intellect, however, does not see as evident what it believes, the will must move it to assent. Being a supernatural act, this requires a special divine motion. In short, the principal role belongs to the will.4
Basically, the object of faith, or what is believed, is God specifically considered as God—God in his deity and not merely as cause of creatures. Also included within the object of faith are the rest of the things that God has revealed to us, such as the humanity of Christ, the efficacy of the sacraments, and eternal reward or punishment. All this is believed insofar as it has been truly and formally revealed by God.5
The internal motive of faith is the authority of God who reveals (cf. Rom 10:17; Mt 11:25; 1 Thes 2:13).6
2a) Properties of the Act of Faith
The properties of the act of faith are as follows:
· The act of faith is supernatural in its object and its motive, as we have just seen. It is also supernatural because of its principle: supernatural grace, which moves the will to want and enlightens the intellect so that it may assent to the object of faith (cf. Jn 6:29; Eph 2:8).7
· The act of faith is voluntary, since the will commands the intellect to assent. In order to issue that command, though, the will needs the help of divine grace. We can thus say that faith is free (cf. Mk 16:14, 16ff; Jn 3:18).8
· The act of faith is infallible, since it is based on the authority of God as author of revelation. He can neither deceive nor be deceived.9
· The act of faith must be firm, that is, it must exclude any doubt (cf. Eph 4:14).10
3. The Virtue of Faith
The virtue of faith is that supernatural habit that makes the act of faith possible. It must be remembered that the supernatural virtues are like the powers of the supernatural organism and are infused together with grace.
Repeating the concepts used for the act of faith, we can define faith as “a supernatural virtue” by which, “with the inspiration and help of God’s grace, we believe that what he has revealed is true, not because its intrinsic truth is seen with the natural light of reason, but because of the authority of God who reveals it, of God who can neither deceive nor be deceived.”11
The virtue of faith is infused by God in the soul together with sanctifying grace.12 Faith increases in the measure that sanctifying grace increases.
By itself, faith does not increase by repetition of acts. Nevertheless, through repeated acts of faith:
· one acquires a natural habit of removing the obstacles to the growth of faith;
· in the state of grace, one merits an increase in sanctifying grace and, on this account, an increase in the accompanying virtue of faith.
The same applies to the virtues of hope and of charity, which will be studied later. Among the means to make faith grow, we can mention:
· asking God to increase it, as the apostles begged the Lord: “Increase our faith!” (Lk 17:5),
· reading the Sacred Scriptures,
· receiving instruction on the truths of faith,
· practicing it in one’s words and life,
· doing apostolate.
The weakening of the above-mentioned natural habit can, in a manner of speaking, diminish faith. Strictly speaking, however, the supernatural virtues cannot diminish, just as our participation in the divine nature through sanctifying grace (which these virtues accompany) cannot diminish.
Though they cannot diminish, they can disappear: Faith is lost through an act of infidelity, or formal heresy, which is always a mortal sin.13 It is only in this manner that faith can be lost. It is not possible to lose it “accidentally,” without one’s own guilt, or with only a slight guilt.
Faith is not lost when the loss of grace is caused by mortal sins against other virtues. Faith inheres in the intellect, which is not necessarily separated from God by mortal sin. But the will does break away from God, and thus charity is always lost with grace. Nevertheless, when grace is lost, faith becomes devoid of its end, since it no longer leads to the love of God. It is then called “formless faith” or “deformed faith,” because faith, which “arouses hope and works through love,”14 is now deprived of its proper function.
3a) Christian Attitude
Whoever consciously denies any one of the truths of faith, though still believing in the others, no longer believes with supernatural faith. Denying even one truth destroys the foundation of the faith; it implies denying that God cannot deceive nor be deceived or that the Church infallibly transmits these truths. Therefore, the other truths are believed merely as a matter of human opinion.15 Thus, among other doctrinal errors:
· a fundamentalist holds that what the Bible asserts is true, identifies the propositions that he personally considers to be asserted, and accepts them as true;
· a Christian liberal holds that some less important things that are asserted in the Bible are not true, establishes personally acceptable criteria for distinguishing important propositions from unimportant ones, and believes some things that the Bible says while disbelieving others.
A Catholic, however, believing that everything that is asserted in the Bible is true and that the whole Church cannot err in identifying divine truth, tries to share in the Church’s understanding of Scripture and the Church’s faith in the divine revealed truths found there.
Theology is “faith seeking understanding.” After a person has accepted God’s revelation, human reason should intervene to understand and justify the truths of faith. Thus, two fundamental attitudes follow:
i) Man receives divine revelation with humility.
ii) Man tries to cultivate and illuminate his faith.
And two obligations result:
i) One must preserve one’s faith, and avoid sins against it.
ii) One must propagate the true faith.
4. The Necessity of Faith
Before studying how faith is necessary for salvation, we should distinguish two types of necessity.
There is necessity as a means when something is absolutely needed as an indispensable means to attain a certain end. For example, the eye is absolutely necessary for seeing, and sanctifying grace is absolutely necessary for eternal life.
There is necessity by precept when something is required because of a command of the legitimate authority. The reception of the Eucharist, for example, is necessary by precept to attain eternal life. Ignorance or moral impossibility usually excuses from this necessity, but there is no excuse for something that is necessary as a means.
4a) Faith is Necessary as a Means
The virtue of faith (habitual faith) is necessary as a means for all men: “Without faith, it is impossible to please God” (Heb 11:6).16
The act of faith (actual and explicit faith) is necessary as a means for all adults with the use of reason.
This act of faith must implicitly extend to all revealed truths, even if the believer does not actually know all of them. Besides, one must explicitly believe with supernatural faith that God exists and that he rewards good deeds and punishes evil ones (cf. Heb 11:6). It is held as probable opinion that explicit faith in Christ the Redeemer and in the Blessed Trinity is also necessary.
4b) Faith is Necessary by Precept
(1) The internal act of faith
There is a divine precept that requires an internal act of faith about all the chief articles of faith. This is done, for example, in praying the usual prayers.
Therefore, one must know and believe the truths contained in the Creed, the Lord’s Prayer, the Ten Commandments, and the sacraments that are necessary for all (Baptism, Penance, and Holy Eucharist).
These acts of faith must be done:
· when one comes to know these truths for the first time;
· when the Church proposes a new dogmatic definition;
· several times during one’s life;
· probably, when death is imminent.
Besides, one must make an act of faith when it is required for the fulfillment of a certain obligation (as in the reception of the sacraments) and also when one suffers a serious temptation against faith that can be overcome only by an act of faith.
However, what we have been discussing is the bare and strictly necessary minimum. Besides, each Christian should endeavor to acquire a good knowledge of his faith, both of dogma and morals. It should be as complete as possible, and in keeping with the knowledge acquired in other fields as time passes. Moreover, there is an obligation to manifest and defend it.17
(2) The external profession of faith
There is a divine precept of externally professing one’s faith, since the Church founded by Christ is visible, and its worship is also visible (cf. Mt 10:32–33). On the other hand, it would be irreverent toward God to conceal the faith for a trivial reason. The external manifestation of faith, moreover, also helps to strengthen it internally.
As to the extent of the external act of faith, this precept has positive and negative aspects. It is never licit to deny the faith, either directly—through formal heresy or apostasy—or indirectly—through some external action that, in the circumstances of that moment, is understood as a denial of the faith (cf. Mt 10:32–33; 2 Mc 6:18–31).
The positive aspect obliges us to manifest our faith:
· when it is required by the honor due to God, such as when the public authority questions us about our faith, or when somebody attempts to force us to deny the faith by words or by deeds;
· when the spiritual welfare of our neighbor requires it; for example, if keeping silent would cause scandal (cf. Rom 10:9ff; Mt 10:32ff).18
Ecclesiastical law demands an act of faith also on some occasions, as in Baptism or in receiving a heretic or a schismatic into the Church, in the induction of some ecclesiastical offices, and for theology professors.
Concealing the faith can be lawful in some circumstances, and sometimes it can even be necessary (cf. Mt 7:6).19
5. Sins Against Faith
One sins against faith by omission by failing to make an act of faith when it is necessary, or by neglecting the obligation of knowing the truths of faith.
There are two types of sins against faith by commission: by excess and by defect.
i) Sins of excess against faith are the following:
· Rash credulity, by which one believes as revealed by God things that are not (cf. 1 Jn 4:1)
· Superstition, which will be studied under the virtue of religion, to which it is also opposed
ii) Sins of defect20 against faith are the following:
· Infidelity is the culpable lack of faith in an unbaptized person due to his rejection or contempt of it (cf. Mk 16:16). It is not sinful to be a pagan if one has not received a sufficient explanation of the faith. But we should keep in mind that all people are bound to seek the faith inasmuch as they have the obligation of seeking the truth and of embracing it once they have found it.21
· Heresy is the sin of a Christian who rejects the faith by stubbornly denying some revealed truth.
· Apostasy, an extreme form of heresy, is the complete rejection of Christian belief after having accepted it freely. Equivalent to apostasy is the position of Catholics who have fallen into indifferentism (“all religions are equally good”), pantheism, skepticism, agnosticism, Marxist or non-Marxist materialism, and any form of atheism.22
· Schism is the voluntary separation from the Church by stubborn disobedience to the hierarchy. In itself, it is a sin against charity, not against faith, but it usually involves a sin of heresy as well.
· Doubting the faith consists in voluntarily admitting or entertaining doubts against some aspect of the content of the faith. This can be done either by positively questioning the faith or by failing to reject the doubts that may come to one’s mind.
5a) Moral Evil of these Sins
Heresy is a mortal sin ex toto genere suo, that is, it does not admit slight matter.23 Heretics incur ecclesiastical penalties ranging from excommunication to refusal of Church burial.24
Material heresy, that is, an involuntary error in the faith, is not a sin. This can easily be the case of people who are brought up in a heretical sect.
Any person who positively doubts the faith—by doubting some truth that is known to be taught by the Church—commits a sin of heresy; such doubt destroys the formal reason of faith. A person who has negative doubts—that is, who suspends his assent to some article of faith—is not a heretic, since there is no obstinacy or stubbornness. However, that person has to strive to overcome the temptations; otherwise, a sin would be committed. The sin would be venial or mortal depending on how proximate the danger of losing one’s faith is.
6. Dangers for the Faith
6a) Dealings with Infidels and Heretics
Three general norms can be established for dealings with infidels and heretics (cf. Ti 3:10). The first applies to ordinary dealings; the other two apply to communicatio in sacris, the participation in sacred things, especially the sacraments:
i) Generally speaking, dealing with infidels and heretics in ordinary life is lawful. It would be illicit in cases that entail a danger for the faith, such as if, for example, there is a danger of falling into indifferentism. On the other hand, such dealings are highly advisable when there is no danger and there is the possibility of drawing them closer to the faith. This apostolate is called ad fidem propagandam, “for the propagation of the faith.”
ii) It is generally licit (and, at times, even advisable) to deal with non-Catholics in the religious sphere, and welcome them to Catholic rites. However, they cannot take an active part in the worship, and even less receive the sacraments. Among other reasons, they lack the dispositions that are needed to receive them fruitfully. This would be possible only in very exceptional cases, when there is good faith and the required dispositions are present. The Church has specified these cases in the Code of Canon Law.25
iii) Generally speaking, it is not licit for Catholics to participate in non-Catholic religious ceremonies. It is never licit to participate in their sacraments. One of the very few exceptions would be, under some circumstances, the Eastern Orthodox Churches.26 On the other hand, material or passive participation may be licit with sufficient cause, as in attending a wedding of non-Catholics that is contracted before a non-Catholic minister.
6b) Non-Catholic Schools
Parents have the duty of sending their children to schools that will best help them in their task of giving Christian education to their children.27 Attending non-Catholic schools can be a serious danger for the faith. It is never lawful if there is no way of counteracting the danger. This would be relatively easy if the school is truly nonsectarian, that is, has a respectful attitude toward the religious beliefs of its students, or whose instruction is even oriented toward natural religion. It would be much more difficult, on the other hand, if it is positively anti-Catholic or anti-religious.
The means to counteract these dangers are:
· vigilance over the influence of books, classmates, and professors on the students,
· education in the faith outside the school,
· frequent reception of the sacraments.
But, as always, the best defense is to “overcome evil with good” (Rom 12:21). Whenever possible, parents should promote schools where they have control over the education of their children, both in the faith and in other matters. We should keep in mind that parents have the duty of bringing up and educating their children, and the right of being respected and assisted in the fulfillment of that duty. Parents delegate part of this task in the school, and are entitled to receive help from the state for its proper fulfillment.
6c) Dangerous Readings
It is not lawful to read publications that pose a danger for the faith. The closer the danger, the more illicit it is. In judging the danger in a concrete case, one must keep in mind that people usually tend to underestimate it. Therefore, especial care and vigilance must be exercised.28
6d) Mixed Marriages
Marrying a non-Catholic usually constitutes a danger to the faith. For this reason, the Church has always discouraged mixed marriages, even to the extent of putting obstacles to their celebration.29 Nevertheless, she tolerates them when some specific conditions are met. These are basically the obligation assumed by the Catholic party to have the children baptized and brought up in the Catholic religion, and that the non-Catholic spouse will not object to the other’s practicing the Catholic religion.30
6e) Man’s Internal Dangers
Aside from the above-mentioned external dangers, there are other internal dangers. These are, basically, pride and immorality.
HOPE
Man cannot respond to the call of God’s love by his own strength alone. Man must hope that God will give him the capacity to love him in return and fulfill the commandments of love. Through the virtue of hope, man confidently awaits the divine blessing and the beatific vision of God. It also entails fear of offending God’s love and of provoking God’s punishment.31
7. The Nature of Hope
Whereas, by faith, we accept the covenant of God’s love and seek fulfillment in divine life, by hope, we live for the kingdom, relying on God’s promise to bring us to that fulfillment. To believe God’s self-revelation also means acting on it, expecting him to keep his promises. That is hope.
The theological virtue of hope can be defined as a virtue infused by God in our will, by which we are assured that, with the help of God, we will receive both eternal happiness and the means to attain it. Hope springs from faith and looks forward to the attainment of the Beatitudes.32
The object of hope is God, whose possession will make us happy. It also includes that happiness and the means to reach it (cf. Ti 3:7; Tb 2:18).33 However, the fact that this virtue also looks forward to personal happiness does not in the least diminish the merit of good works (cf. 1 Cor 9:25; Phil 3:14; 2 Tm 4:8; Rv 2:10; Ps 118:112).34
The reason for hope is the omnipotence and goodness of God.
As to its subject, all the faithful possess the virtue of hope, even those in the state of sin. The souls in purgatory also have the virtue of hope. The only exceptions are formal heretics (because they have destroyed faith, which is the foundation of hope) and those having committed a mortal sin against hope and who are not yet forgiven.
But, as in the case of faith, those who have hope but have lost sanctifying grace are said to have formless hope.
The properties of hope are as follows:
· It is a supernatural virtue, like faith.
· It is effective; through it we not only hope, but also courageously strive to reach the object of our hope.
· It is firm, insofar as it rests on God, but it is not firm as regards the certitude of our cooperation. Thus, in this life, hope is always mixed with a certain degree of mistrust for ourselves. This helps us to be humble.
8. The Necessity of Hope
The virtue of hope (habitual hope) is necessary as a means for salvation.35
Some acts of hope (actual hope) are necessary as a means for salvation for adults with the use of reason.
Acts of hope are also necessary by divine positive law (necessity from precept) in the following cases:
· At the beginning of moral life
· Some other times during one’s life
· When death is imminent
Acts of hope are also accidentally necessary when there is a serious temptation against hope, or when an action that requires an act of hope must be performed (the Sacrament of Confession, for example).
9. Sins Against Hope
Sins against hope can be classified into three types:
i) Omission is the failure to perform a necessary act of hope.
ii) Despair consists in deliberately giving up any hope of eternal salvation.36 Sometimes it is a mere faintheartedness. This is usually just a temptation that must be rejected. A different thing is positive despair, which leads to giving up all efforts to reach salvation, because the latter is deemed impossible. Positive despair is always a mortal sin (ex toto genere suo), since it implies mistrusting God, and leads away from him.37
iii) Presumption is a reckless confidence of reaching salvation by means other than those that are established by God.38 It may have different manifestations:
· Hoping to reach salvation by one’s own means, without the help of God, as the Pelagian heresy held
· Hoping to be saved by God’s help alone, without one’s own cooperation, as Luther claimed
· Expecting God’s help for evil deeds
· Hoping to receive an extraordinary help of God without sufficient cause (tempting God)
· Trusting God’s mercy in such a way that one is led to sin more easily
Footnotes:
1. Cf. CCC 1814–1816; 2087–2089.
2. Cf. ST, II-II, q. 2, a. 9.
3. Cf. Ibid., II-II, q. 4, a. 2.
4. Cf. DS 2119; ST, I-II, q. 15, a. 6.
5. Cf. ST, II-II, q. 1, a. 1.
6. Cf. DS 3032.
7. Cf. DS 3008, 3010; DV, 5.
8. Cf. DS 1526, 3010; DV, 5; DH, 10.
9. Cf. ST, II-II, q. 4, a. 8.
10. Cf. DS 1333ff.
11. DS 3008; cf. CCC, 143.
12. Cf. DS 1530ff.
13. Cf. DS 1544.
14. LG, 41.
15. Cf. ST, II-II, q. 5, a. 3.
16. Cf. DS 3012.
17. Cf. DH, 14.
18. Cf. DS 2118.
19. Cf. ST, II-II, q. 3, a. 2 ad 3.
20. Cf. CCC, 2088, 2089; CIC, 751.
21. Cf. DH, 2.
22. Cf. CCC, 2123–2128; CIC, 1374.
23. Cf. ST, II-II, q. 10, aa. 3, 6; q. 20, a. 3.
24. Cf. CIC, 1364, 1184.
25. Cf. Ibid., 844.
26. Cf. CCC, 1400.
27. Cf. Ibid., 2229.
28. Cf. CIC, 823.
29. Cf. Ibid., 1086, 1124.
30. Cf. Ibid., 1125–26; CCC, 1635.
31. Cf. CCC, 1817–1821; 2090–2092.
32. Cf. LG, 48.
33. Cf. ST, II-II, q. 17, a. 2.
34. Cf. DS 1539, 1581.
35. Cf. DS 1530.
36. Cf. CCC, 2091.
37. Cf. ST, I-II, q. 40, a. 4 ad 3; II-II, q. 20, a. 4.
38. Cf. Ibid., II-II, q. 21, aa. 1–2; CCC, 2092.